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ALLEN AND GREENOUGH'S 

NEW 
LATIN GRAMMAR 

FOR 
SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES 

FOUNDED ON COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR 

EDITED BY 

J. B. GREENOUGH G. L. KITTREDGE 
A. A. HOWARD BENJ. L. D'OOGE 



GINN & COMPANY 

BOSTON • NEW YORK • CHICAGO . LONDON 






Entered at Stationers' Hall 



Copyright, 1888, by 
J. B. GREENOUGH and J. H. ALLEN 



Copyright, 1903, by 
GINN & COMPANY 



ALL RIGHTS RESERVEO 
3I0.7 






gEfte gtftengum igregg 

GINN & COMPANY - PRO- 
PRIETORS • BOSTON • U.S.A. 



PBEFACE 



The present book is a careful revision of the edition of 1888. 
This revision was planned and actually begun in the lifetime of 
Professor Greenough and has been carried out in accordance 
with principles that met with his full approval. The renum- 
bering of the sections has made it possible to improve the 
arrangement of material in many particulars and to avoid a cer- 
tain amount of repetition which was inevitable in the former 
edition. Thus, without increasing the size of the volume, the 
editors have been able to include such new matter as the advance 
in grammatical science has afforded. The study of historical 
and comparative syntax has been pursued with considerable vigor 
during the past fifteen years, and the well-established results of 
this study have been inserted in their appropriate places. In 
general, however, the principles and facts of Latin syntax, as 
set forth by Professor Greenough, have stood the test both of 
scientific criticism and of practical use in the class-room, and 
accordingly the many friends of Allen and Greenough's Gram- 
mar will not find the new edition strange or unfamiliar in its 
method or its contents. The editors have seen no occasion to 
change long-settled nomenclature or to adopt novel classifica- 
tions when the usual terms and categories have proved satis- 
factory. On the other hand, they have not hesitated to modify 
either doctrines or forms of statement whenever improvement 
seemed possible. 

In the matter of " hidden quantity" the editors have been even 
more conservative than in the former revision. This subject is 
one of great difficulty, and the results of the most recent investi- 
gations are far from harmonious. In many instances the facts 



IV PREFACE 

are quite undiscoverable, and, in general, the phenomena are of 
comparatively slight interest except to special students of the 
arcana of philology. No vowel has been marked long unless the 
evidence seemed practically decisive. 

The editors have been fortunate in securing the advice and 
assistance of Professor E. S. Sheldon, of Harvard University, for 
the first ten pages, dealing with phonetics and phonology. They 
are equally indebted to Professor E. P. Morris, of Yale Univer- 
sity, who has had the kindness to revise the notes on historical 
and comparative syntax. Particular acknowledgment is also 
due to Mr. M. Grant Daniell, who has cooperated in the revision 
throughout, and whose accurate scholarship and long experience 
as a teacher have been of the greatest service at every point 

September 1, 1903. 






CONTENTS 

PAET I — WORDS AND FORMS 

PAGE 

Letters and Sounds 1-10 

Alphabet ; Classification of Sounds 1-3 

Orthography, Syllables, Pronunciation 3-5 

Quantity and Accent 5-7 

Combinations ; Phonetic Changes 7-10 

Words and their Forms 11-16 

Parts of Speech 11, 12 

Inflection; Eoot, Stem, and Base 12-14 

Gender, Number, and Case 14-16 

Declension of Nouns 16-45 

General Rules of Declension 17 

First Declension 18-20 

Second Declension 20-24 

Third Declension 24-37 

Mute Stems 25, 26 

Liquid and Nasal Stems 27, 28 

Pure i-Stems 29, 30 

Mixed i-Stems 30, 31 

Irregular Nouns 33, 34 

Greek Nouns 34-36 

Rules of Gender 36, 37 

Fourth Declension 37-39 

Fifth Declension 39,40 

Defective and Variable Nouns 40-44 

Names of Persons 45 

Inflection of Adjectives 46-62 

First and Second Declensions 46-49 

Third Declension 49-54 

Comparison 55-57 

Numerals 58-62 

Inflection of Pronouns 63-71 

Personal, Reflexive, Possessive, Demonstrative 63-67 

Relative, Interrogative, Indefinite 68-71 

Correlatives (Pronouns and Adverbs) 71 

Conjugation of Verbs 72-125 

Inflection 72 

Signification: Voice, Mood, Tense 73-75 

Personal Endings 76, 77 

v 



VI CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Forms : Stem and Verb-Endings 77-81 

The Verb Sum 81-83 

Regular Verbs 84-103 

The Four Conjugations ; Principal Parts 84, 85 

Formation of the Three Stems 85-89 

Synopsis of the Verb 90 

Peculiarities of Conjugation 91 

First Conjugation 92-95 

Second Conjugation 96, 97 

Third Conjugation 98, 99 

Fourth Conjugation 100, 101 

Verbs in -i5 of the Third Conjugation 102, 103 

Deponent Verbs 103-106 

Periphrastic Conjugations . 106-108 

Irregular Verbs 108-115 

Defective Verbs 116-119 

Impersonal Verbs 119, 120 

Classified Lists of Verbs 121-125 

Particles 126-139 

Adverbs 126-130 

Prepositions 130-136 

Conjunctions 137-139 

Interjections 139 

Formation of Words 140-162 

Roots and Stems 140, 141 

Suffixes: Primary; Significant Endings 141-143 

Derivation of Nouns 143-148 

Derivation of Adjectives 148-154 

Nouns with Adjective Suffixes ; Irregular Derivatives .... 154-156 

Derivation of Verbs 156-159 

Compound Words . . . 160-162 

PART II — SYNTAX 

Introductory Note 163 

The Sentence 164-208 

Definitions : Subject and Predicate, Modification, etc 164-168 

Agreement : the Four Concords 168 

Nouns : Apposition ; Predicate Agreement 168-170 

Adjectives 170-175 

Rules of Agreement 171, 172 

Special Uses 172-175 

Pronouns 176-192 

Personal and Demonstrative 176-180 

Reflexive 180-183 

Possessive 183, 184 



CONTENTS vii 

PAGE 

Relative 184-189 

Indefinite 189-191 

Alius and alter 192 

Verbs 193-195 

Verb and Subject, Incomplete Sentences 193-195 

Particles : Adverbs, Conjunctions, Negatives 196-204 

Questions 205-208 

Construction of Cases 209-275 

Introductory Note 209 

Nominative Case e 210 

Vocative Case 210 

Genitive Case 210-224 

Genitive with Nouns 211-216 

Possessive Genitive 211,212 

Genitive of Material, of Quality 213 

Partitive Genitive 213-215 

Objective Genitive 215, 216 

Genitive with Adjectives 216, 217 

Genitive with Verbs 218-223 

Verbs of Remembering and Forgetting 218, 219 

Verbs of Reminding 219 

Verbs of Accusing, Condemning, and Acquitting 220 

Verbs of Feeling 221 

Interest and refert 221,222 

Verbs of Plenty and Want ; Special Verbs 222, 223 

Peculiar Genitives : Exclamatory, etc 223, 224 

Dative Case 224-239 

Indirect Object with Transitives 225-227 

Indirect Object with Intransitives 227-232 

Dative cf Possession 232, 233 

Dative of the Agent 233, 234 

Dative of Reference 234-236 

Ethical Dative 236 

Dative of Separation 236, 237 

Dative of the Purpose or End 237 

Dative with Adjectives 238, 239 

Accusative Case 240-248 

Direct Object 240-242 

Cognate Accusative 242-244 

Two Accusatives 244-246 

Idiomatic and Special Uses 247, 248 

Ablative Case 248-265 

Uses of the Ablative Proper 249-255 

Ablative of Separation 249, 250 

Ablative of Source and Material 250-252 

Ablative of Cause 252,253 



Vlll CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Ablative of Agent 253, 254 

Ablative of Comparison 254, 255 

Uses of the Ablative as Instrumental 256-265 

Ablative of Means or Instrument 256-258 

Ablative of Manner 258 

Ablative of Accompaniment 258, 259 

Ablative of Degree of Difference 259, 260 

Ablative of Quality 260 

Ablative of Price 261, 262 

Ablative of Specification 262, 263 

Ablative Absolute 263-265 

Uses of the Ablative as Locative 265 

Time and Place 266-273 

Special Uses of Prepositions 274, 275 

Syntax of the Verb 276-386 

Moods 276-293 

Introductory Note 276,277 

Indicative Mood 277 

Subjunctive in Independent Sentences 278-283 

Hortatory Subjunctive 278, 279 

Hortatory Subjunctive in Concessions 279 

Optative Subjunctive 280, 281 

Deliberative Subjunctive 281 

Potential Subjunctive 282,283 

Imperative Mood 283-285 

Prohibition (Negative Command) 285 

Infinitive Mood 286-292 

Infinitive as Noun 286,287 

Infinitive with Impersonals 287, 288 

Complementary Infinitive 289, 290 

Infinitive with Subject Accusative 290 

Infinitive of Purpose ; Peculiar Infinitives 290, 291 

Exclamatory Infinitive 292 

Historical Infinitive 292 

Tenses 293-308 

Introductory Note 293 

Tenses of the Indicative 293-301 

Present Tense 293-295 

Imperfect Tense 296-297 

Future Tense 298 

Perfect Tense 298-300 

Pluperfect Tense 300 

Future Perfect Tense 300 

Epistolary Tenses 301 

Tenses of the Subjunctive 301-306 

Sequence of Tenses 302-306 



CONTENTS ix 

PAGE 

Tenses op the Infinitive 307, 308 

Participles 309-316 

Distinctions of Tense 309-311 

Uses of Participles 311-314 

Future Active Participle 314, 315 

Gerundive (Future Passive Participle) 315, 316 

Gerund and Gerundive 316-319 

Supine 320 

Conditional Sentences 321-338 

Introductory Note 321, 322 

Protasis and Apodosis 322, 323 

Classification of Conditions 323-325 

Simple Present and Past Conditions 325, 326 

Future Conditions 326-328 

Conditions Contrary to Fact 328-330 

General Conditions 331 

Conditional Relative Clauses 332, 333 

Condition Disguised 333, 334 

Condition Omitted . . . 334, 335 

Complex Conditions 335 

Clauses of Comparison (Conclusion Omitted) 336 

Use of Si and its Compounds 337, 338 

Concessive Clauses 338, 339 

Clauses of Proviso 340 

Clauses of Purpose (Final Clauses) 340-343 

Clauses of Characteristic 343-346 

Clauses of Result (Consecutive Clauses) 346-348 

Causal Clauses 348-350 

Temporal Clauses 350-359 

Ubi, ut, cum, quando, as Indefinite Relatives 350 

Postquam, ubi, ut, simul atque 351 

Cum Temporal 352-354 

Cum Causal or Concessive 354, 355 

Antequam and priusquam 355, 356 

Dum, donee, arid quoad 357-359 

Clauses with quin and quominus 359-361 

Substantive Clauses 362-384 

Introductory Note 362 

Substantive Clauses of Purpose and Infinitive Clauses .... 362-367 

Substantive Clauses of Result (Consecutive Clauses) 367-369 

Indicative with quod 369, 370 

Indirect Questions 370-373 

Indirect Discourse 373-384 

Introductory Note 373,374 

Declaratory Sentences 374-377 

Subordinate Clauses 377, 378 



X CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Tenses of the Infinitive 378, 379 

Tenses of the Subjunctive 379,380 

Questions in Indirect Discourse 380, 381 

Commands in Indirect Discourse ^ . . . 381 

Conditions in Indirect Discourse 381-384 

Intermediate Clauses 384-386 

Informal Indirect Discourse 385 

Subjunctive of Integral Part (Attraction) 386 

Important Rules of Syntax 387-392 

Order of Words 393-400 

General Rules 393-398 

Special Rules 398,399 

Structure of the Period 399, 400 

PEOSODY 

Quantity 401-405 

Rhythm 405-409 

Introductory Note 405, 406 

Measures of Rhythm ; Feet 406-409 

The Musical Accent ; Csesura ; Diaeresis 409 

Versification 410-426 

The Verse ; Scansion and Elision 410, 411 

Dactylic Verse 411-414 

Dactylic Hexameter 411, 412 

Elegiac Stanza ; Other Dactylic Verses 413, 414 

Iambic Verse 414-416 

Iambic Trimeter 414, 415 

Other Iambic Measures 416 

Trochaic Verse 417 

Mixed Measures 418 

Logacedic Verse 418-421 

Metres of Horace 421-425 

Index to the Metres of Horace 423-425 

Other Lyric Poets 425 

Miscellaneous Measures 425, 426 

Early Prosody 426,427 

Miscellaneous 428-431 

Reckoning of Time 428, 429 

Measures of Value, Length, and Capacity 429-431 

Glossary of Terms 432-435 

Index of Verbs 436-444 

Index of Words and Subjects 445-475 

Latin Authors and their Works 476, 477 

Parallel References 479-490 



ALLEN AND GREENOUGH'S 

NEW LATIN GRAMMAR 



XI 



LATIN GRAMMAR 



Latin Grammar is usually treated under three heads: 1. Words and 
Forms; 2. Syntax; 3. Prosody. Syntax treats of the function of words 
when joined together as parts of the sentence ; Prosody of their arrange- 
ment in metrical composition. 



PART FIRST— WORDS AND FORMS 

THE ALPHABET 

1. The Latin Alphabet is the same as the English (which is 
in fact borrowed from it) except that it does not contain J, U, 
and W. 

Note 1. — The Latin alphabet was borrowed in very early times from a Greek 
alphabet (though not from that most familiar to us) and did not at first contain the 
letters G and Y. It consisted of capital letters only, and the small letters with which 
we are familiar did not come into general use until the close of the eighth century of 
our era. 

Note 2. — The Latin names of the consonants were as follows : — B, be (pronounced 
bay); C, ce (pronounced kav); D, de (day); F, ef ; G, ge (gay); H, ha; K, ka; L, el; 
M, em ; N, en; P, pe (pay)?*Q, qu (koo); R, er ; S, es; T, te (tay); X, ix; Z, zeta (the 
Greek name, pronounced dzayta). The sound of each vowel was used as its name. 

a. The character C originally meant G, a value always retained in 
the abbreviations C. (for Gaius) and Cn. (for Gnaeus). 

Note. — In early Latin C came also to be used for K, and K disappeared except be- 
fore a in a few words, as Kal. (Kalendae), Karthagd, Thus there was no distinction in 
writing between the sounds of g and k. Later this defect was remedied by forming 
(from C) the new character G. This took the alphabetic place formerly occupied by 
Z, which had gone out of use. In Cicero's time (see N. D. ii. 93), Y (originally a form 
of V) and Z were introduced from the ordinary Greek alphabet to represent sounds in 
words derived from the Greek, and they were put at the end of the Latin alphabet. 

b. I and V were used both as vowels and as consonants (see § 5). 

Note. — V originally denoted the vowel sound u (oo) f and F stood for the sound of 
our consonant w. When F acquired the value of our f, V came to be used for the 
sound of w as well as for the vowel u. 

In this book i is used for both vowel and consonant i, u for vowel u, and 
v for consonant u : — ius, vir, iuvenis 

1 



2 WORDS AND FORMS [§§ 2-4 

Classification of Sounds 

2. The simple Vowels are a, e, i, o, u, y. 

The Diphthongs are ae, au, ei, eu, oe, ui, and, in early Latin, ai, 
oi, ou. In the diphthongs both vowel sounds are heard, one fol- 
lowing the other in the same syllable. 

3. Consonants are either voiced (sonant) or voiceless (surd). 
Voiced consonants are pronounced with the same vocal murmur 
that is heard in vowels ; voiceless consonants lack this murmur. 

1. The voiced consonants are b, d, g, 1, r, m, n, z, consonant i, v. 

2. The voiceless consonants are p, t, c (k, q), f, h, s, x. 

4. Consonants are further classified as in the following table: 

Labials Dentals Palatals 



f Voiced (mediae) 


b 


d 


g 


Mutes | Voiceless (tenues) 


P 


t 


c (k, q) 


[ Aspirates 


ph 


th 


ch 


Nasals 


m 


n 


n (before c, g, q) 


Liquids 




l,r 




Fricatives (Spirants) 


f 1 


8, Z 




Sibilants 




s, z 




Semivowels 


V 




consonant i 



Double consonants are x (= cs) and z (= dz) ; h is merely a breathing. 

1. Mutes are pronounced by blocking entirely, for an instant, the passage of the 
breath through the mouth, and then allowing it to escape with an explosion (distinctly 
heard before a following vowel). Between the explosion and the vowel there may be 
a slight puff of breath (h), as in the Aspirates (ph, th, ch). 2 

2. Labials are pronounced with the lips, or lips and teeth. 

3. Dentals (sometimes called Linguals) are pronounced with the tip of the tongue 
touching or approaching the upper front teeth. 

4. Palatals are pronounced with a part of the upper surface of the tongue touching 
or approaching the palate. 3 

5. Fricatives (or Spirants) are consonants in which the breath passes continuously 
through the mouth with audible friction. 

6. Nasals are like voiced mutes, except that the mouth remains closed and the 
breath passes through the nose. 

1 Strictly a labio-dental, pronounced with the under lip touching the upper teeth. 

2 The aspirates are almost wholly confined to words borrowed from the Greek. In 
early Latin such borrowed sounds lost their aspiration and became simply p, t, c. 

3 Palatals are often classed as (1) velars, pronounced with the tongue touching or ris- 
ing toward the soft palate (in the back part of the mouth) , and (2) palatals, in which the 
tongue touches or rises toward the hard palate (farther forward in the mouth) . Compare 
the initial consonants in key and cool, whispering the two words, and it will be observed 
that before e and i the k is sounded farther forward in the mouth than before a, o, or u. 



§§ 5, 6] ORTHOGRAPHY 3 

5. The vowels i and u serve as consonants when pronounced 
rapidly before a vowel so as to stand in the same syllable. 1 Con- 
sonant i has the sound of English consonant y; consonant u (v) 
that of English consonant w. 

Consonant i and u (v) are sometimes called Semivowels. 

Note 1. -^-The Latin alphabet did not distinguish between the vowel and consonant* 
sounds of i and u, but used each letter (I and V) with a double value. In modern books 
i and u are often used for the vowel sounds, j and v for the consonant sounds ; but in 
printing in capitals J and U are avoided : ; — I V LI vs (Iulius) . The characters J and U are 
only slight modifications of the characters I and V. The ordinary English sounds of 
j and v did not exist in classical Latin, but consonant u perhaps approached English v 
in the pronunciation of some persons. 

Note 2. — In the combinations qu, gu, and sometimes su, u seems to be the conso- 
nant (w). Thus, aqua, anguis, consuetus (compare English quart, anguish, suave). In 
! these combinations, however, u is reckoned neither as a vowel nor as a consonant. 2 

ORTHOGRAPHY 

6., Latin spelling varied somewhat with the changes in the 

language and was never absolutely settled in all details. 

Thus, we find lubet, vorto, as earlier, and libet, vert5, as later forms. Other 
variations are optumus and optimus, gerundus and gerendus. 

The spelling of the first century of our era, known chiefly from 
inscriptions, is tolerably uniform, and is commonly used in modern 
editions of the classics. 

a. After v (consonant u), o was anciently nsed instead of u (voltus, servos), 
and this spelling was not entirely given np nntil the middle of the first 
century of our era. 

b. The older quo became cu in the Augustan period ; in the second cen- 
tury of our era the spelling quu established itself in some words : — 

cum, older quom ; 3 equos, ecus, later equus ; sequontur, secuntur, later sequuntur ; 
similarly exstinguont, exstingunt, later exstinguunt. 
Note. — In most modern editions the spelling quu is adopted, except in cum. 

c. Between consonant i and a preceding a, e, o, or u, an i was developed 
as a transient sound, thus producing a diphthong ai, ei, etc., before the con- 
sonant i. In such cases but one i was written : as, aio (for fai-io), maius 
(for fmai-ius), peius (for fpei-ius). 

1 Compare the English word Indian as pronounced in two syllables or in three. 

2 In such words it is possible that the preceding consonant was labialized and that 
no distinct and separate consonant u was heard. 

3 The spelling quum is very late and without authority. 



4 WORDS AND FORMS [§§ 6-8 

d. Similarly in compounds of iacio but one i was written (as, con-icio, 
not con-iicio); but the usual pronunciation probably showed consonant i 
followed by vowel i (see § 11. e). 

Note. — Some variations are due to later changes in Latin itself, and these are not 
now recognized in classical texts. 

1. Unaccented ti and ci, when followed by a vowel, came to be pronounced alike ; 
hence nunti5 was later spel]ed with a c and diciS with a t. 

2. The sound of h was after a time lost and hence this letter was often omitted (as, 
arena for harena) or mistakenly written (as, humor for umor) . 

3. The diphthong ae early in the time of the Empire acquired the value of long open 
e (about like English e in there) , and similarly oe after a time became a long close e 
(about like the English ey in they) ; and so both were often confused in spelling with 
e : as, coena or caena for the correct form cena. 

Syllables 

7. Every Latin word has as many syllables as it has vowels or 
diphthongs : — 

a-ei-e, mo-ne, fi-li-us, fe-ro-ci-ta-te. 

a. In the division of words into syllables a single consonant (including 
consonant i and v) between two vowels is written and pronounced with 
the following vowel. Doubled consonants are separated : — 

pa-ter, mi-li-tes, in-iu-ri-a, di-vi-d5 ; mit-td, tol-16. 

Note 1. — Some extend the rule for single consonants to any consonant group (as 
sp, st, gn) that can begin a word. In this book, dix-it, sax-um, etc. are preferred to 
di-xit, sa-xum; the pronunciation was probably die-sit, sac-sum. 

Note 2. — A syllable ending with a vowel or diphthong is called open: all others 
are called close. Thus in pa-ter the first syllable is open, the second close. 

b. In compounds the parts are separated : — 
ab-est, ob-latus, dis-cerno, du-plex, di-st5. 

Pronunciation 

8. The so-called Roman Pronunciation of Latin aims to repre- 
sent approximately the pronunciation of classical times. 

Vowels : a as in father; a as in idea. 

e as eh? (prolonged), or a in date; e as eh? (clipped) or e in net. 
I as in machine; I as in holiest or sit. 

6 as in holy; 6 as in obey. 

u as oo in boot; ii as oo in foot. 

y between u and i (French u or German ii). 

Diphthongs : ae like ay; ei as in eight; oe like oy in boy\ 

eu as eh'oo; au like ow in now; ui as oo'ee. 



§§ 8-10] PRONUNCIATION AND QUANTITY 5 

Consonants are the same as in English, except that — 

c and g are as in come, get, never as in city, gem. 

s as in sea, lips, never as in ease. 

Consonant i is like y in young; v (consonant u) like w in wing. 

n in the combinations ns and nf probably indicates nasalization of the 
precediDg vowel, which w 7 as also lengthened ; and final m in an 
unaccented syllable probably had a similar nasalizing effect on 
the preceding vowel. 

ph, th, ch, are properly like p, t, k, followed by h (which may, for con- 
venience, be neglected) ; but ph probably became like (or nearly 
like) f soon after the classical period, and may be so pronounced 
to distinguish it from p. 

z is as dz in adze. 

bs is like ps ; bt is like pt. 

Note. — Latin is sometimes pronounced with the ordinary English sounds of the 
letters. The English pronunciation should be used in Roman names occurring in 
English (as, Julius Csesar) ; and in familiar quotations, as, e pluribus unum ; viva 
voce; vice versa; a fortiori; veni, vidi, vici, etc. 

Quantity 

9. The Quantity of a Vowel or a Syllable is the time occupied 
in pronouncing it. Two degrees of Quantity are recognized, — 
long and short. 

a. In syllables, quantity is measured from the beginning of the vowel 
or diphthong to the end of the syllable. 

10. Vowels are either long or short by nature, and are pro- 
nounced accordingly (§ 8). 

a. A vowel before another vowel or h is short : as in via, nihil. 

b. A diphthong is long : as in aedes, f oedus. So, also, a vowel derived 
from a diphthong : as in excludo (from fex-claudo). 

c. A vowel formed by contraction is long : as in nil (from nihil). 

d. A vowel before ns, nf, gn, is long : as in constans, infero, magnus. 
Note. — But the quantity of the vowel before gn is not certain in all cases. 
6. A vowel before nd, nt, is regularly short : as in amandus, amant. 

In this book all vowels known to be long are marked (a, e, etc.), and 
short vowels are left unmarked (a, e, etc.). Vowels marked with both signs 
at once (a, e, etc.) occur sometimes as long and sometimes as short. 

Note. — The Romans sometimes marked vowel length by a stroke above the letter 
(called an apex) , as, A ; and sometimes the vowel was doubled to indicate length. An 
i made higher than the other letters was occasionally used for i. But none of these 
devices came into general use. 



6 WORDS AND FORMS [§11 

11. The Quantity of the Syllable is important for the position 
of the accent and in versification. 

a. A syllable containing a long vowel or a diphthong is said to be long 
by nature : as, ma-ter, aes, au-la-. 

b. A syllable containing a short vowel followed by two consonants 
(except a mute before 1 or r) or by a double consonant (x, z) is said to be 
long by position, but the vowel is pronounced short : as, est, ter-ra, sax-um, 
Me-zen-tius. 

Note. — When a consonant is doubled the pronunciation should show this dis- 
tinctly. Thus in mit-to both t's should be pronounced as in out-talk (not merely a 
single t as in better) . 

c, A syllable containing a short vowel followed by a mute before 1 or r 
is properly short, but may be used as long in verse. Such a syllable is said 
to be common. 

Note 1. — In syllables long by position, but having a short vowel, the length is 
partly due to the first of the consonants, which stands in the same syllable with the 
Vowel. In syllables of " common " quantity (as the first syllable of patrem) the ordi- 
nary pronunciation was pa-trem, but in verse pat-rem was allowed so that the syllable 
could become long. 

Note 2. — In final syllables ending with a consonant, and containing a short vowel, 
the quantity in verse is determined by the following word : if this begins with a vowel 
the final consonant is joined to it in pronunciation ; if it begins with a consonant the 
syllable is long by position. 

Note 3. — In rules for quantity h is not counted as a consonant, nor is the appar- 
ently consonantal u in qu, gu, su (see § 5. n. 2). 

do A syllable whose vowel is a, e, o, or u, followed by consonant i, is 
long whether the vowel itself is long or short : as, a-io, ma-ior, pe-ius. 

In such cases the length of the syllable is indicated in this book by a 
circumflex on the vowel. 

Note. — The length of a syllable before consonant i is due to a transitional sound 
(vowel i) which forms a diphthong with the preceding vowel: as, a-io (for fai-io), 
m&-ior (for tmai-ior) . See § 6. c. 

e. In some compounds of iacio (as, in-icio) the consonant i of the simple 
verb was probably pronounced (though not written). Thus the first syl- 
lable was long by position : as, in-icio (for in-iicio). See § 6. d. 

In such cases the length of the syllable is not indicated in this book by 
a circumflex on the vowel. 

/• When a syllable is long by position the quantity of the vowel is not 
always determinable. The vowel should be pronounced short unless it is 
known to be long. 

Note. — The quantity of a vowel under these circumstances is said to be hidden. 
It is often determined with a greater or less degree of certainty by inscriptional evi- 
dence (see § 10. n.) or by other means. In this book, the quantity of all such vowels 
known to be long is marked. 



§§ 12-14] ACCENT 



Accent 



12. Words of two syllables are accented on the first syllable : 
as, Ro'ma, fi'des, tan'go. 

Words of more than two syllables are accented on the Penult 1 
if that is long (as, amicus, mone'tur, contin'git) ; otherwise on the 
Antepenult (as, do'minus, a'lacris, dissocia'bllis). 

a. When an enclitic is joined to a word, the accent falls on the syllable 
next before the enclitic, whether long or short: as, dea'que, amare've, tibi'ne, 
ita'que (and . . . so), as distinguished from i'taque (therefore). So (accord- 
ing to some) ex'inde, ec'quandd, etc. 

Exceptions : 1. Certain apparent compounds of facid retain the accent of the 
simple verb: as, benefa'cit, caiefa'cit (see § 266. a). 
Note. — These were not true compounds, but phrases. 

2. In the second declension the genitive and vocative of nouns in -ius and the 
genitive of those in -ium retain the accent of the nominative : as, Cornell, Vergi'li, 
inge'ni (see § 49. c). 

3. Certain words which have lost a final vowel retain the accent of the com- 
plete words : as, illi'c for illi'ce, produ'c for produce, sati'n for sati'sne. 

Combinations 

13. In some eases adjacent words, being pronounced together, 
are written as one : — 

unusquisque (unus quisque), siquis (si quis), quare (qua re), quamobrem (quam 
ob rem ; cf . quas ob res), respublica (res publica), iusiurandum (ius iurandum), 
paterfamilias (pater familias). 

Note. — Sometimes a slight change in pronunciation resulted, as, especially in the 
old poets, before est in homost (homo est), periculumst (periculum est), ausust (ausus est), 
qualist (qualis est). Similarly there occur vin', scin' for visne, scisne, sis (si vis), sodes 
(si audes), sultis (si vultis). Compare in English somebody, to breakfast; he's, I've, 
thou f rt. 

Phonetic Changes 

14. Latin, the language of the ancient Romans, was properly, as its name implies, 
the language spoken in the plain of Latium, lying south of the Tiber, which was the first 
territory occupied and governed by the Romans. It is a descendant of an early form 
of speech commonly called Indo-European (by some Indo- Germanic) , from which 
are also descended most of the important languages now in use in Europe, including 
among others English, German, the Slavic and the Celtic languages, and further some 
now or formerly spoken in Asia, as Sanskrit, Persian, Armenian. Greek likewise 

1 The Penult is the last syllable but one ; the Antepenult, the last but two* 



8 WORDS AND FORMS [§§ 14, 15 

belongs to the same family. The Romance (or Romanic) languages, of which the 
most important are Italian, French, Provencal, Spanish, Portuguese, and Roumanian, 
are modern descendants of spoken Latin. 

The earliest known forms of Latin are preserved in a few inscriptions. These in- 
crease in number as we approach the time when the language began to be used in litera- 
ture ; that is, about B.C. 250. It is the comparatively stable language of the classical 
period (b.c. 80-a.d. 14) that is ordinarily meant when we speak of Latin, and it is 
mainly this that is described in this book. 

15. Among the main features in the changes of Latin from 
the earliest stages of the language as we know it up to the forms 
of classical Latin may be mentioned the following : — 

Vowel Changes 

1. The old diphthong ai became the classical ae (aedilis for old aidilis), 
old oi became oe or u (unus for old oinos), and old ou became u (duco for 
old douc5). 

2. In compound verbs the vowel a of the simple verb often appears as i 
or e, and ae similarly appears as I : — 

facio, factum, but conficiS, confectum ; caedo, but occido, and similarly cecidi, 
perfect of caedd (cf. cado, occidd; cecidi, perfect of cado). 

Note. — This change is commonly ascribed to an accentuation on the first syl- 
lable, which seems to have been the rule in Latin before the rule given above (see § 12) 
became established. The original Indo-European accent, however, was not limited by 
either of these principles ; it was probably a musical accent so-called, consisting in a 
change of pitch, and not merely in a more forcible utterance of the accented syllable. 

3. Two vowels coming together are often contracted : — 

cogo for tco-ag5 ; pr5m5 for fpro-emo ; nil for nihil ; debeo for fde-hibeo 
(tde-habeo). 

Consonant Changes 

4. An old s regularly became r between two vowels (rhotacism), passing 
first through the sound of (English) z : — 

eram (cf. est); generis, genitive of genus. 1 

Note. — Final s sometimes became r by analogy: as, honor (older honos), from the 
analogy of honoris, etc. 

5. A dental (t, d) often became s, especially when standing next to t, d, 
or s : as, equestris for fequettris, casus for fcadtus (cf . 6, below). 

6. Many instances of assimilation, partial or complete, are found : — 

cessi for fced-si; summus for tsupmus ; scriptus for scribtus (b unvoicing to 
p before the voiceless t); and in compound verbs (see § 16). 

1 A similar change can be seen in English: as, were (cf. was), lorn (cf. lose). 



§§ 15-17] VOWEL VARIATIONS 9 

Dissimilation, the opposite kind of change, prevented in some cases the 
repetition of the same sound in succcessive syllables : — 

Thus, parilia for palilia (from Pales) ; meridies for tmedidies; naturalis with suffix 
-alis (after r), but popularis with -aris (after 1). 

7. Final s was in early Latin not always pronounced : as, plenu(s) fidei. 
Note. — Traces of this pronunciation existed in Cicero's time. He speaks of the omis- 
sion of final s before a word beginning with a consonant as ' ' countrified ' ' (subrusticum) . 

8. A final consonant often disappears : as, virgo for fvirgon ; lac for 
flact ; cor for fcord. 

9. G, c, and h unite with a following s to form x : as, rex for fregs ; dux 
for fducs ; traxi for ftrahsi. 1 

10. G and h before t become c : as, rectum for fregtum ; actum for fagtum ; 
tractum for ftrahtum. 2 

11. Between m and s or m and t, a p is often developed : as, sumpsi for 
fsumsl ; emptum for f emtum. 

16. In compounds with prepositions the final consonant in the preposition was often 
assimilated to the following consonant, but usage varied considerably. 

There is good authority for many complete or partial assimilations ; as, for ad, 
ace-, agg-, app-, att-, instead of adc-, adg-, etc. Before a labial consonant we find com- 
(comb-, comp-, comm-), but con- is the form before c, d, f, g, eons, i, q, s, t, cons, v; we 
find conl- or coll-, conr- or corr-; co- in conecto, coniveo, conitor, conubium. In usually 
changes to im- before p, b, m. Ob and sub may assimilate b to a following c, f , g, or 
p ; before s and t the pronunciation of prepositions ending in b doubtless had p ; surr-, 
summ-, occur for subr-, subm-. The inseparable amb- loses b before a consonant. 
Circum often loses its m before i. The s of dis becomes r before a vowel and is assimi- 
lated to a following f ; sometimes this prefix appears as di-. Instead of ex we find ef- 
before f (also ecf-) . The d of red and sed is generally lost before a consonant. The 
preposition is better left unchanged in most other cases. 

Vowel Variations 

17. The parent language showed great variation in the vowel 
sounds of kindred words. 3 

a* This variation is often called by the German name Ablaut. It has 
left considerable traces in the forms of Latin words, appearing sometimes 
as a difference of quantity in the same vowel (as, u, u ; e, e), sometimes as a 
difference in the vowel itself (as, e, o ; i, ae) : 4 — ■ 

tego, I cover, toga, a robe ; pend5, I weigh, pondus, weight; fides, faith, fidus, 
faithful, foedus, a treaty ; miser, wretched, maestus, sad; dare, to give, 
donum, a gift; rego, I rule, rex, a king; dux, a leader, diicd (for older 
douco) , I lead. Compare English drive, drove (drave) , driven ; bind, bound, 
band; sing, sang, sung; etc. 

1 Really for ftraghsi. The h of trah5 represents an older palatal sound (see § 19). 

2 Really for ftraghtum. These are cases of partial assimilation (cf. 6, above). 

3 This variation was not without regularity, but was confined within definite limits. 

4 In Greek, however, it is more extensively preserved. 



10 WORDS AND FORMS [§§ 18, 19 



Kindred Forms 

18. Both Latin and English have gone through a series of phonetic changes, dif- 
ferent in the two languages, but following definite laws in each. Hence both pre- 
serve traces of the older speech in some features of the vowel system, and both show 
certain correspondences in consonants in words which each language has inherited from 
the old common stock. Only a few of these correspondences can be mentioned here. 

19. The most important correspondences in consonants between 
Latin and English, in cognate words, may be seen in the following 

table: — 1 

Latin English 

p : pater f : father, earlier fader 2 

f from bh : fero, f rater b : to bear, brother 

b " " lubet, libet v, f : love, lief 

t : tu, tenuis th : thou, thin 3 

d : duo, dent- t : two, tooth 

f from dh : facio d : do 

d " " medius d: mid 

b u u ruber d : red 

c : cord-, cornu h : heart, horn 

qu : quod wh : ivhat 

g : genus, gustus c, k, ch : kin, choose 

h (from gh): hortus, haedus y, g: yard, goat 

cons, i : iugum y : yoke 

v : ventus, ovis w : wind, ewe 

v from gv : vivus (for fgvivos), 1 . 7 

.- ,. , \-v [ qu, c, k: quick, come 

venio (for fgvemio). J * ' ' * 

Note 1. — Sometimes a consonant lost in Latin is still represented in English: as, 
niv- (for fsniv-), Eng. snoiv ; anser (for fhanser), Eng. goose. 

Note 2. — From these cases of kindred words in Latin and English must be care- 
fully distinguished those cases in which the Latin word has been taken into English either 
directly or through some one of the modern descendants of Latin, especially French. 
Thus facio is kindred with Eng. do, but from the Latin participle (factum) of this verb 
comes Eng./actf, and from the French descendant {fait) of factum comes Eng./ectf. 

1 The Indo-European parent speech had among its consonants voiced aspirates 
(bh, dh, gh). All these suffered change in Latin, the most important results being, 
for bh, Latin f, b (English has b, v, or f) ; for dh, Latin f, b, d (English has d) ; for gh, 
Latin h, g (English has y, g). The other mutes suffered in Latin much less change, 
while in English, as in the other Germanic languages, they have all changed consid- 
erably in accordance with what has been called Grimm's Law for the shifting of mutes. 

2 The th in father is a late development. The older form fader seems to show an 
exception to the rule that English th corresponds to Latin t. The primitive Germanic 
form was doubtless in accordance with this rule, but, on account of the position of the 
accent, which in Germanic was not originally on the first syllable in this word, the 
consonant underwent a secondary change to d. 

8 But to the group st of Latin corresponds also English st ; as in Latin sto, English 
stand. 



|20] THE PARTS OF SPEECH 11 



THE PAETS OF SPEECH 

20. Words are divided into eight Parts of Speech: Nouns, 
Adjectives (including Participles), Pronouns, Verbs, Adverbs, 
Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Interjections. 

a, A Noun is the name of a person, place, thing, or idea : as, Caesar ; 
Roma, Rome ; domus, a house ; virtus, virtue. 

Names of particular persons and places are called Proper Nouns ; other 
nouns are called Common. 

Note. — An Abstract Noun is the name of a quality or idea : as, audacia, boldness ; 
senectus, old age. A Collective Noun is the name of a group, class, or the like : as, turba, 
crowd; exercitus, army. 

b* An Adjective is a word that attributes a quality : as, bonus, good ; 
fortis, brave, strong. 

Note 1. — A Participle is a word that attributes quality like an adjective, but, being 
derived from a verb, retains in some degree the power of the verb to assert : as, — 
Caesar consul creatus, Caesar having been elected consul. 

Note 2. — Etymologically there is no difference between a noun and an adjective, 
both being formed alike. So, too, all names originally attribute quality, and any com- 
mon name can still be so used. Thus, King William distinguishes this William from 
other Williams, by the attribute of royalty expressed in the name king. 

c, A Pronoun is a word used to distinguish a person, place, thing, or 
idea without either naming or describing it : as, is, he ; qui, who ; nos, we. 

Nouns and pronouns are often called Substantives. 

d. A Verb is a word which is capable of asserting something : as, sum, 
/ am ; amat, he loves. 

Note. — In all modern speech the verb is usually the only word that asserts any- 
thing, and a verb is therefore supposed to be necessary to complete an assertion. 
Strictly, however, any adjective or noun may, by attributing a quality or giving a 
name, make a complete assertion. In the infancy of language there could have been 
no other means of asserting, as the verb is of comparatively late development. 

e* An Adverb is a word used to express the time, place, or manner of 
an assertion or attribute : as, splen&ide mendax, gloriously false ; hodie natus 
est, he was born to-day. 

Note. — These same functions are often performed by cases (see §§ 214-217) of 
nouns, pronouns, and adjectives, and by phrases or sentences. In fact, all adverbs 
were originally cases or phrases, but have become specialized by use. 

/. A Preposition is a word which shows the relation between a noun or 
pronoun and some other word or words in the same sentence : as, per agros 
it, he goes over the fields ; e pluribus unum, one out of many. 

Note. — Most prepositions are specialized adverbs (cf. § 219). The relations ex- 
pressed by prepositions were earlier expressed by case-endings. 



12 WORDS AND FORMS [§§ 20-22 

g. A Conjunction is a word which connects words, or groups of words, 
without affecting their grammatical relations : as, et. and ; sed, but. 

Note. — Some adverbs are also used as connectives. These are called Adverbial 
Conjunctions or Conjunctive (Relative) Adverbs: as, ubi, where; donee, until. 

h. Interjections are mere exclamations and are not strictly to be classed 
as parts of speech. Thus, — heus, halloo ! o, oh ! 

Note. — Interjections sometimes express an emotion which affects a person or thing 
mentioned, and so have a grammatical connection like other words : as, vae victis, woe 
to the conquered (alas for the conquered) ! 

INFLECTION 

21. Latin is an inflected language. 

Inflection is a change made in the form of a word to show its 
grammatical relations. 

a. Inflectional changes sometimes take place in the body of a word, or 
at the beginning, but oftener in its termination : — - 

vox, a voice ; vocis, of a voice ; voc5, 1 call ; vocat, he calls ; vocet, let him call ; 
vocavit, he has called ; tangit, he touches ; tetigit, he touched. 

b. Terminations of inflection had originally independent meanings which 
are now obscured. They correspond nearly to the use of prepositions, 
auxiliaries, and personal pronouns in English. 

Thus, in vocat, the termination is equivalent to he or she; in vocis, to the 
preposition of; and in vocet the change of vowel signifies a change of mood. 

c. Inflectional changes in the body of a verb usually denote relations of 
tense or mood, and often correspond to the use of auxiliary verbs in Eng- 
lish : — 

frangit, he breaks or is breaking ; fregit, he broke or has broken; mordet, he 
bites ; momordit, he bit. x 

22. The inflection of Nouns, Adjectives, Pronouns, and Par- 
ticiples to denote gender, number, and case is called Declension, 
and these parts of speech are said to be declined. 

The inflection of Verbs to denote voice, mood, tense, number, 
and person is called Conjugation, and the verb is said to be con- 
jugated. 

Note. — Adjectives are often said to have inflections of comparison. These are, 
however, properly stem-formations made by derivation (p. 55, footnote). 

1 The only proper inflections of verbs are those of the personal endings ; and the 
changes here referred to are strictly changes of stem, but have become a part of the 
system of inflections. 



§§23-25] ROOT, STEM, AND BASE 13 

23. Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Interjections are 
not inflected and are called Particles. 

Note. — The term Particle is sometimes limited to such words as num, -ne, an (inter- 
rogative), Hon, ne (negative), si (conditional), etc., which are used simply to indicate 
the form or construction of a sentence. 

Root, Stem, and Base 

24. The body of a word, to which the terminations are attached, 
is called the Stem. 

The Stem contains the idea of the word without relations ; but, except 
in the first part of a compound (as, arti-fex, artificer), it cannot ordinarily be 
used without some termination to express them. 1 

Thus the stem v5c- denotes voice; with -s added it becomes vox, a voice or the 
voice, as the subject or agent of an action ; with -is it becomes vocis, and signifies 
of a voice. 

Note. — The stem is in many forms so united with the termination that a compari- 
son with other forms is necessary to determine it. 

25. A Root is the simplest form attainable by analysis of a 
word into its component parts. 

Such a form contains the main idea of the word in a very general sense, 
and is common also to other words either in the same language or in kin- 
dred languages. 2 

Thus the root of the stem voc- is voc, which does not mean to call, or I call, 
or calling, but merely expresses vaguely the idea of calling, and cannot be used 
as a part of speech without terminations. With a- it becomes voca-, the stem of 
vocare (to call) ; with av- it is the stem of vocavit (he called) ; with ato- it becomes 
the stem of vocatus (called) ; with ation- it becomes the stem of vocationis (of a 
calling). With its vowel lengthened it becomes the stem of vox, voc-is (a voice : 
that by which we call). This stem voc-, with -alis added, means belonging to a 
voice ; with -ula, a little voice. 

Note. — In inflected languages, words are built up from Roots, which at a very 
early time were used alone to express ideas, as is now done in Chinese. Roots are 
modified into Stems, which, by inflection, become fully formed words. The process by 
which roots are modified, in the various forms of derivatives and compounds, is called 
Stem-building. The whole of this process is originally one of composition, by which 
significant endings are added one after another to forms capable of pronunciation and 
conveying a meaning. 

Roots had long ceased to be recognized as such before the Latin existed as a sepa- 
rate language. Consequently the forms which we assume as Latin roots never really 
existed in Latin, but are the representatives of forms used earlier. 

1 Another exception is the imperative second person singular in -e (as, rege), 

2 For example, the root sta is found in the Sanskrit tishthami, Greek '((tt^ixi, Latin 
sistere and stare, German fteljett, and English stand. 



14 WORDS AND FORMS [§§26-30 

26. The Stem maybe the same as the root: as in due-is, of a leader, 
fer-t, he bears; but it is more frequently formed from the root — 

1. By changing or lengthening its vowel : as in scob-s, sawdust (scab, 
shave)] reg-is, of a king (reg, direct)) voc-is, of a voice (voc, call), 

2. By the addition of a simple suffix (originally another root) : as in fuga-, 
stem of fuga, flight (fug -f a-) ; regi-s, you rule (reg + stem-ending e / -) ; 
sini-t, he allows (si -f- tqP/q-). 1 

3. By two or more of these methods : as in duci-t, he leads (duc -f stem- 
ending %-). 

4. By derivation and composition, following the laws of development 
peculiar to the language. (See §§ 227 ft) 

27. The Base is that part of a word which is unchanged in 
inflection : as, serv- in servus ; mens- in mensa ; ign- in Ignis. 

a. The Base and the Stem are often identical, as in many consonant 
stems of nouns (as, reg- in reg-is). If, however, the stem ends in a vowel, 
the latter does not appear in the base, but is variously combined with the 
inflectional termination. Thus the stem of servus is servo-; that of mensa, 
mensa- ; that of ignis, igni-. 

28. Inflectional terminations are variously modified by com- 
bination with the final vowel or consonant of the Stem, and thus 
the various forms of Declension and Conjugation (see §§36, 164) 
developed. 

GENDER 

29. The Genders distinguished in Latin are three : Masculine, 
Feminine, and Neuter. 

30. The gender of Latin nouns is either natural or grammatical. 
a. Natural Gender is distinction as to the sex of the object denoted : as, 

puer (m.), boy ; puella (f.), girl; rex (m.), king ; regina (f.), queen. 

Note 1. — Many nouns have both a masculine and a feminine form to distinguish 
sex: as, cervus, cerva, stag, doe; cliens, clienta, client; victor, victrlx, conqueror. 

Many designations of persons (as nauta, sailor) usually though not necessarily male 
are always treated as masculine. Similarly names of tribes and peoples are masculine : 
as, Romani, the Romans; Persae, the Persians. 

Note 2. — A few neuter nouns are used to designate persons as belonging to a class : 
as, mancipium tuum, your slave (your chattel). 

Many pet names of girls and boys are neuter in form : as, Paegnium, Glycerium. 

Note 3. — Names of classes or collections of persons may be of any gender: as, 
exercitus (m.), acies (f.), and agmen (n.), army; operae (f. plur.), workmen; copiae 
(f. plur.), troops; senatus (m.), senate; cohors (f.), cohort; concilium (n.), council. 

1 These suffixes are Indo-European stem-endings. 



§§ 30-34] GENERAL RULES OF GENDER 15 

b. Grammatical Gender is a formal distinction as to sex where no actual 
sex exists in the object. It is shown by the form of the adjective joined 
with the noun: as, lapis magnus (m.), a great stone; manus mea (f.), my 
hand. 

General Rules of Gender 

31. Names of Male beings, and of Rivers, Winds, Months, and 

Mountains, are masculine: — 

pater, father; Iulius, Julius; Tiberis, the Tiber; auster, south wind ; Ianua- 
rius, January; Apennmus, the Apennines. 

Note. — Names of Months are properly adjectives, the masculine noun mensis, 
month, being understood: as, Ianuarius, January. 

a. A few names of Rivers ending in -a (as, Allia), with the Greek names 
Lethe and Styx, are feminine ; others are variable or uncertain. 

b. Some names of Mountains are feminine or neuter, taking the gender 
of their termination : as, Alpes (f.), the Alps ; Soracte (n.). 

32. Names of Female beings, of Cities, Countries, Plants, Trees, 
and Gems, of many Animals (especially Birds), and of most ab- 
stract Qualities, are feminine : — 

mater, mother; Iulia, Julia; Roma, Borne; Italia, Italy; rosa, rose; pinus, 
pine; sapphirus, sapphire; anas, duck; Veritas, truth. 

a. Some names of Towns and Countries are masculine : as, Sulmo, Gabii 
(plur.) ; or neuter, as, Tarentum, Illyricum. 

b. A few names of Plants and Gems follow the gender of their termina- 
tion : as, centaureum (x.), centaury; acanthus (m.), bearsfoot ; opalus (m.), 
opal. 

Note. — The gender of most of the above may also be recognized by the termina- 
tions, according to the rules given under the several declensions. The names of Roman 
women were usually feminine adjectives denoting their gens or house (see § 108. b). 

33. Indeclinable nouns, infinitives, terms or phrases used as 

nouns, and words quoted merely for their form, are neuter : — 

fas, right; nihil, nothing; gummi, gum; scire tuum, your knowledge (to 
know) ; triste vale, a sad farewell ; hoc ipsum diu, this very " long." 

34. Many nouns may be either masculine or feminine, accord- 
ing to the sex of the object. These are said to be of Common 
Gender: as, exsul, exile; bos, ox or cow; parens, parent. 

Note. — Several names of animals have a grammatical gender, independent of sex. 
These are called epicene. Thus lepus, hare, is always masculine, and vulpes, fox, is 
always feminine. 



16 DECLENSION OE NOUNS [§§35-37 

NUMBER AND CASE 

35. Nouns, Pronouns, Adjectives, and Participles are declined 
in two Numbers, singular and plural; and in six Cases, nomina- 
tive, genitive, dative, accusative, ablative, vocative. 

a. The Nominative is the case of the Subject of a sentence. 

b. The Genitive may generally be translated by the English Possessive, 
or by the Objective with the preposition of. 

c. The Dative is the case of the Indirect Object (§ 274). It may usually 
be translated by the Objective with the preposition to or for. 

d. The Accusative is the case of the Direct Object of a verb (§ 274). It 
is used also with many of the prepositions. 

e. The Ablative may usually be translated by the Objective with from, 
by, with, in, or at. It is often used with prepositions. 

/• The Vocative is the case of Direct Address. 

g. All the cases, except the nominative and vocative, are used as object- 
cases ; and are sometimes called Oblique Cases {casus obllqui). 

h* In names of towns and a few other words appear traces of another 
case (the Locative), denoting the place ivhere : as, Romae, at Rome ; run, in 
the country. 

Note. — Still another case, the Instrumental, appears in a few adverbs (§ 215. 4). 

DECLENSION OF NOUNS 

36. Declension is produced by adding terminations originally significant to differ- 
ent forms of stems, vowel or consonant. The various phonetic corruptions in the lan- 
guage have given rise to the several declensions. Most of the case-endings, as given 
in Latin, contain also the final letter of the stem. 

Adjectives are, in general, declined like nouns, and are etymologically to be classed 
with them; but they have several peculiarities of inflection (see § 109 ff.). 

37. Nouns are inflected in five Declensions, distinguished by 
the final letter (characteristic) of the Stem, and by the case-ending 
of the Genitive Singular. 

Decl. 1 



1 


Characteristic a Gen. Sing, ae 


o 


6 i 


3 


i or a Consonant is 


4 


ii us 


5 


e ei 



a. The Stem of a noun may be found, if a consonant stem, by omitting 
the case-ending ; if a vowel stem, by substituting for the case-ending the 
characteristic vowel. 



§§ 38, 39] CASE-ENDINGS OF THE FIVE DECLENSIONS 



17 



38. The following are General Rules of Declension : — 

a. The Vocative is always the same as the Nominative, except in the 
singular of nouns and adjectives in -us of the second declension, which have 
-e in the vocative. It is not included in the paradigms, unless it differs 
from the nominative. 

h* In neuters the Nominative and Accusative are always alike, and in 
the plural end in -a. 

c. The Accusative singular of all masculines and feminines ends in -m ; 
the Accusative plural in -s. 

d. In the last three declensions (and in a few cases in the others) the 
Dative singular ends in -I. 

e* The Dative and Ablative plural are always alike. 

/• The Genitive plural always ends in -um. 

g. Final -i, -o, -u of inflection are always long ; final -a is short, except in 
the Ablative singular of the first declension ; final -e is long in the first and 
fifth declensions, short in the second and third. Final -is and -us are long in 
plural cases. 

Case-endings of the Five Declensions 

39. The regular Case-endings of the several declensions are 
the following: — l 



Decl. I 


Decl. II 


Decl. Ill 


Decl. IV 


Decl. V 








Singular 










F. 


M. N. 


M.,F. N. 


M. 


N. 


F. 




a \ 


-us -um 


-S 


-US 


-U 


-es 


Nom. 


" a 1 




(modified stem) 








Gen. 


-ae 


-l 


-is 


-US 




-ei (-e) 


Dat. 


-ae 


-6 


-l 


-ui (-a) 


-u 


-ei (-e) 


Ace. 


-am 


-um -um 


-em (-im) (like nom 


.) -um 


-u 


-em 


Abl. 


-a 


-6 


-e (-1) 


-u 




-e 


Voc 


-a 


-e -um 


(like nom.) 

Plural 


-us 


-u 


-es 


N.V. 


-ae 


-I -a 


-es -a, -ia 


-us 


-ua 


-es 


Gen. 


-arum 


-orum 


-um, -ium 


-uum 




-erum 


D.Ab. 


-is 


-is 


-ibus 


-ibus (-ubus) 


-ebus 


Ace. 


-as 


-os -a 


-es (-is) -a, -ia 


-us 


-ua 


-es 


iFc 


)r ancieE 


it, rare, and 


Greek forms (which are 


here omitted), 


see 


under the 



several declensions. 



18 DECLENSION OF NOUNS [§§40-43 

FIRST DECLENSION (a-STEMS) 

40. The Stem of nouns of the First Declension ends in a-. The 
Nominative ending is -a (the stem-vowel shortened), except in 
Greek nouns. 

41. Latin nouns of the First Declension are thus declined : — 







stella, f., star 










Stem stella- 










SlNGULAR 




CASE-ENDINGS 


Nom. 


stella 


a star 




-a 


Gen. 


stellae 


of a star 




-ae 


Dat. 


stellae 


to or for a star 




-ae 


Ace. 


stellam 


a star 




-am 


Abl. 


stella 


with, from, by, etc. 
Plural 


a star 


-a 


Nom. 


stellae 


stars 




-ae 


Gen. 


stellarum 


of stars 




-arum 


Dat. 


stellis 


to or for stars 




-is 


Ace. 


stellas 


stars 




-as 


Abl. 


stellis 


with, from, by, etc. 


stars 


-is 



a. The Latin has no article ; hence stella may mean a star, the star, or 
simply star. 

Gender in the First Declension 

42. Nouns of the first declension are Feminine. 

Exceptions : Nouns masculine from their signification : as, nauta, sailor. So a 
few family or personal names: as, Murena, Dolabella, Scaevola 1 ; also, Hadria, the 
Adriatic. 

Case-Forms in the First Declension 

43. a. The genitive singular anciently ended in -ai (dissyllabic), which 
is occasionally found : as, aulal. The same ending sometimes occurs in the 
dative, but only as a diphthong. 

i Scaevola is really a feminine adjective, used as a noun, meaning little left hand; 
but, being used as the name of a man (originally a nickname) , it became masculine. 
Original genders are often thus changed by a change in the sense of a noun. 



43, 44] 



FIRST DECLENSION (J!-STEMS) 



19 



b. An old genitive in -as is preserved in the word familias, often used in 
the combinations pater (mater, filius, filia) familias, father, etc., of a family 
(plur. patres familias or familiarum). 

c. The Locative form for the singular ends in -ae ; for the plural in -Is (cf . 
p. 34, footnote): as, R5mae, at Rome ; Athenls, at Athens. 

d. The genitive plural is sometimes found in -um instead of -arum, espe- 
cially in Greek patronymics, as, Aeneadum, sons of JEneas, and in compounds 
with -cola and -gena, signifying dwelling and descent : as, caelicolum, celes- 
tials ; Troiugenum, sons of Troy ; so also in the Greek nouns amphora and 
drachma. 

e* The dative and ablative plural of dea, goddess, filia, daughter, end in 
an older form -abus (deabus, filiabus) to distinguish them from the corre- 
sponding cases of deus, god, and filius, son (deis, ffliis). So rarely with other 
words, as, liberta, freed-woman ; mula, she-mule; equa, mare. But, except 
when the two sexes are mentioned together (as in formulas, documents, 
etc.), the form in -is is preferred in all but dea and filia. 

Note 1. — The old ending of the ablative singular (-ad) is sometimes retained in 
early Latin: as, praidad, booty (later, praeda). 

Note 2. — In the dative and ablative plural -eis for -is is sometimes found, and -iis 
(as in taeniis) is occasionally contracted to -is (taenis) ; so regularly in words in -aia (as, 
Bais fromBaiae). 

Greek Nouns of the First Declension 

44. Many nouns of the First Declension borrowed from the 
Greek are entirely Latinized (as, aula, court); but others retain 
traces of their Greek case-forms in the singular. 





Electra, f. 


synopsis, F. 


art of music, F. 


Nom. 


Electra (-a) 


epitome 


miisica (-e) 


Gen. 


Electrae 


epitomes 


nmsicae (-es) 


Dat. 


Electrae 


epitomae 


nmsicae 


Ace. 


Electram (-an) 


epitomen 


musicam (-en) 


Abl. 


Electra 


epitome 


miisica (-e) 




Andromache, F. 


JEneas, M. 


Persian, M. 


Nom. 


Andromache (-a) 


Aeneas 


Perses (-a) 


Gen. 


Andromaches (-ae) 


Aeneae 


Persae 


Dat. 


Andromachae 


Aeneae 


Persae 


Ace. 


Andromachen (-am) 


Aenean (-am) 


Per sen (-am) 


Abl. 


Andromache (-S) 


Aenea 


Perse (-a) 


Voc. 


Andromache (-a) 


Aenea (-a) 


Persa 



20 DECLENSION OF NOUNS [§§44-46 





Anchises, m. 


son of JEneas, m. 


comet, m. 


Nom. 


Anchises 


Aeneades (-a) 


cometes (-a) 


Gen. 


Anchisae 


Aeneadae 


cometae 


Dat. 


Anchisae 


Aeneadae 


cometae 


Ace. 


Anchisen (-am) 


Aeneaden 


cometen (-am) 


Abl. 


Anchise (-a) 


Aeneade (-a) 


cometa (-e) 


Voc. 


Anchise (-a, -a) 


Aeneade (-a) 


cometa 



There are (besides proper names) about thirty-five of these words, several being 
names of plants or arts: as, crambe, cabbage; musice, music. Most have also regular 
Latin forms : as, cometa ; but the nominative sometimes has the a long. 

a. Greek forms are found only in the singular; the plural, when it 
occurs, is regular : as, cometae, -arum, etc. 

b. Many Greek nouns vary between the first, the second, and the third 
declensions : as, Bootae (genitive of Bootes, -is), Thucydidas (accusative plu- 
ral, of Thucydides, -is). See § 52. a and § 81. 

Note. — The Greek accusative Scipiadain, from Scipiades, descendant of the Scipios, 
is found in Horace. 

SECOND DECLENSION (0-STEMS) 

45. The Stem of nouns of the Second Declension ends in S-: 
as, viro- (stem of vir, man), servo- (stem of servus or servos, slave), 
bello- (stem of bellum, war). 

a* The Nominative is formed from the stem by adding s in masculines 
and feminines, and m in neuters, the vowel 5 being weakened to ii (see 
§§ 6. a, 46. n. 1 ). 

b. In most nouns whose stem ends in r<5- the s is not added in the Nomi- 
native, but o is lost, and e intrudes before r, 1 if not already present : as, 
ager, stem agrft- 2 ; cf . puer, stem puero-. 

Exceptions : erus, hesperus, iuniperus, morus, numerus, taurus, umerus, uterus, 
virus, and many Greek nouns. 

c. The stem-vowel 5 has a variant form e, 3 which is preserved in the 
Latin vocative singular of nouns in -us : as, serve, vocative of servus, slave. 

Note. — In composition this e appears as i. Thus, — belli-ger, warlike (from bello/ e -, 
stem of bellum, war). 

46. Nouns of the Second Declension in -us (-os) and -um (-om) 
are thus declined : — 

1 Compare the English chamber from French chambre. 

2 Compare Greek dypos, which shows the original o of the stem. 
8 By so-called Ablaut (see § 17. a). 



§§ 46, 47] 



SECOND DECLENSION (O-STEMS) 



21 





servus, m., slave 




bellum, n., ivar 


Pompeius, m., Pompey 




Stem servo- 






Stem belio- 


Stem Pompeio- 








Singular 










CASE-ENDINGS 


CASE-ENDINGS 




Nom. 


servus (-os) 


-us (-os) 


bellum 


-um 


Pompeius 


Gen. 


servi 


-I 




belli 


-I 


Pompei 


Dat. 


servo 


-6 




bello 


-o 


Pompeio 


Ace. 


servum (-om) 


-um (-om) 


bellum 


-um 


Pompeium 


Abl. 


servo 


-o 




bello 


-6 


Pompeio 


Voc. 


serve 


-e 




bellum 


-um 


Pompei (-el) 








Plural 






Nom. 


servi" 


-l 




bella 


-a 


Pompei 


Gen. 


servorum 


-orum 




bellorum 


-orum 


Pompeiorum 


Dat. 


servis 


-is 




bellis 


-is 


Pompeis 


Ace. 


servos 


-6s 




bella 


-a 


Pompeios 


Abl. 


servis 


-is 




bellis 


-Is 


Pompeis 



Note 1. — The earlier forms for nominative and accusative were -os, -om, and these 
were always retained after u and v up to the end of the Republic. The terminations 
s and m are sometimes omitted in inscriptions : as, Cornelio for Cornelios, Corneliom. 

Note 2. — Stems in quo-, like equo-, change qu to c before u. Thus, — ecus (earlier 
equos), equi, equo, ecum (earlier equom), eque. Modern editions disregard this principle. 

47. Nouns of the Second Declension in -er and -ir are thus de- 
clined : — 





puer, m., boy 


ager, m., field 


vir, m., man 






Stem puero- 


Stem agro- 

SlNGULAR 


Stem viro- 


CASE-ENDINGS 


Nom. 


puer 


ager 


vir 





Gen. 


pueri 


agri 


viri 


-1 


Dat. 


puero 


agro 


vir 6 


-6 


Ace. 


puerum 


agrum 


virum 


-um 


Abl. 


puero 


agro 
Plural 


viro 


-6 


Nom. 


pueri 


agri 


viri 


-I 


Gen. 


puerorum 


agrorum 


virorum 


-orum 


Dat. 


pueris 


agris 


viris 


-is 


Ace. 


pueros 


agros 


viros , 


-6s 


Abl. 


pueris 


agris 


viris 


-IS 



Note. — "When e belongs to the stem, as in puer, it is retained throughout; other- 
wise it appears only in the nominative and vocative singular, as in ager. 



22 DECLENSION OF NOUNS [§§48,49 

Gender in the Second Declension 

48. Nouns ending in -us (-os), -er, -ir, are Masculine ; those end- 
ing in -um (-on) are Neuter. 

Exceptions : Names of countries and towns in -us (-os) are Feminine : as, 
Aegyptus, Corinthus. Also many names of plants and gems, with the following : 
alvus, belly ; carbasus, linen (pi. carbasa, sails, n.) ; colus, distaff; humus, ground; 
vannus, winnowing -shovel. 

Many Greek nouns retain their original gender : as, arctus (f.), the Polar Bear ; 
methodus (f.), method. 

a* The following in -us are Neuter ; their accusative (as with all neuters) 
is the same as the nominative : pelagus, sea ; virus, poison ; vulgus (rarely 
m.), the crowd. They are not found in the plural, except pelagus, which has 
a rare nominative and accusative plural pelage. 

Note. — The nominative plural neuter cete, sea monsters, occurs; the nominative 
singular cetus occurs in Vitruvius. 

Case-Forms in the Second Declension 

49. a. The Locative form of this declension ends for the singular in -I : 
as, huml, on the ground ; CorinthI, at Corinth ; for the plural, in -is : as, 
Philippls, at Philippi (cf. p. 34, footnote). 

h. The genitive of nouns in -ius or -ium ended, until the Augustan Age, 
in a single -i : as, fill, of a son ; Pompei, of Pompey (Pompeius) ; but the 
accent of the nominative is retained: as, inge'ni, of genius. 1 

c. Proper names in -ius have -i in the vocative, retaining the accent of 
the nominative : as, Vergfll. So also, filius, son ; genius, divine guardian : as, 
audi, mi fill, hear, my son. 

Adjectives in -ius form the vocative in -ie, and some of these are occa- 
sionally used as nouns : as, Lacedaemonie, Spartan. 

Note. — Greek names in -ius have the vocative -ie : as, Lyrcius, vocative Lyrcie. 

d. The genitive plural often has -um or (after v) -om (cf. § 6. a) instead 
of -drum, especially in the poets : as, deum, superum, divom, of the gods; 
virum, of men. Also in compounds of vir, and in many words of money, 
measure, and weight : as, Sevirum, of the Seviri; nummum, of coins ; iugerum, 
of acres. 

e. The original ending of the ablative singular (-od) is sometimes found 
in early Latin : as, Gnaivod (later, Gnaeo), Cneius. 

/. Proper names in -aius, -eius, -oius (as, Aurunculeius, Boi), are declined 
like Pompeius. 

1 The genitive in -ii occurs once in Virgil, and constantly in Ovid, but was probably 
unknown to Cicero. 



49-52] 



SECOND DECLENSION (O-STEMS) 



23 



g. Deus (m.), god, is thus declined: — 



Singular 

Nom. deus 

Gen. del 

Dat. deo 

Ace. deum 

Abl. deo 



Plural 

dei(dii), di 
deorum, deum 
deis(diis), dis 
deos 
deis(diis), dis 



Note. — The vocative singular of deus does not occur in classic Latin, but is said 
to have been dee ; deus (like the nominative) occurs in the Vulgate. For the genitive 
plural, divum or divom (from divus, divine) is often used. 

50. The following stems in ero-, in which e belongs to the stem, 

retain the e throughout and are declined like puer (§ 47) : — 

adulter, adulterer; gener, son-in-law; paer, boy ; 

socer, father-in-law ; vesper, evening ; Liber, Bacchus. 

Also, the adjective liber, free, of which liberi, children, is the plural (§ 111. a), 
and compounds in -fer and -ger (stem fero-, gero-) : as, lucifer, morning star ; 
armiger, squire. 

a. An old nominative socerus occurs. So vocative puere, boy, as if from 
fpuerus (regularly puer). 

b. Vir, man, has genitive viri ; the adjective satur, sated, has saturi ; ves- 
per, evening, has ablative vespere (locative vesperi, in the evening}. 

c. Mulciber, Vulcan, has -beri and -bri in the genitive. The barbaric 
names Hiber and Celtiber retain e throughout. 

51. The following, not having e in the stem, insert it in the 

nominative singular and are declined like ager (§ 47) : — 

ager, field, stem agro- ; coluber, snake; magister, master; 

aper, boar ; conger, sea eel ; 

arbiter, judge ; culter, knife; 

auster, south wind ; f aber, smith ; 

cancer, crab; fiber, beaver; 

caper, goat; liber, book; 



minister, servant; 
oleaster, wild olive ; 
onager (-grus) , wild ass ; 
scomber (-brus), mackerel. 



Greek Nouns of the Second Declension 

52. Greek nouns of the Second Declension end in -os, -6s, mas- 
culine or feminine, and in -on neuter. 

They are mostly proper names and are declined as follows in 
the Singular, the Plural, when found, being regular : — 



24 



DECLENSION OF NOUNS 



[88 52-55 





mythos, m. 


Athos, m. 


Delos, f. 


Ilion, n. 




fable 


Athos 
Singular 


Delos 


Ilium 


Nom. 


mythos 


Athos (-S) 


Delos 


Tlion 


Gen. 


mythi 


AthS (-i) 


Deli 


Ilii 


Dat. 


niythS 


AthS 


Dels 


IliS 


Ace. 


mython 


AthSn (-um) 


Delon (-um) 


Ilion 


Abl. 


myths 


AthS 


DelS 


Ilio 


Voc. 


mythe 


Athos 


Dele 


Ilion 



a. Many names in -es belonging to the third declension have also a 
genitive in -I: as, Thucydides, ThucydidI (compare §44. b). 

b* Several names in -er have also a nominative in -us : as, Teucer or 
Teucrus. The name Panthiis has the vocative Panthu (§ 81. 3). 

c. The genitive plural of certain titles of books takes the Greek ter- 
mination -on : as, Georgicon, of the Georgics. 

d. The termination -oe (for Greek -ot) is sometimes found in the nomi- 
native plural: as, Adelphoe, the Adelphi (a play of Terence). 

6. Greek names in -eus (like Orpheus) have forms of the second and 
third declensions (see § 82). 



THIRD DECLENSION (CONSONANT AND /-STEMS) 

53. Nouns of the Third Declension end in a, e, I, o, y, c, 1, n, 
s, t, x. 

54. Stems of the Third Declension are classed as follows : — 

(a. Mute stems. 
b. Liquid and Nasal stems. 

II. I-Stems • 



I. Consonant Stems 



a. Pure i-stems. 

b. Mixed i-stems. 

55. The Nominative is always d&rived from the stem. 
The variety in form in the Nominative is due to simple modi- 
fications of the stem, of which the most important are — 

1. Combination of final consonants : as of c (or g) and s to form x ; dux, 
ducis, stem due-; rex, regis, stem reg-. 

2. Omission of a final consonant : as of a final nasal ; leo, leonis, stem 
leon-; oratio, orationis, stem oration-. 

3. Omission of a final vowel : as of final i ; calcar, calcaris, stem calcari-. 

4. Change of vowel in the final syllable : as of a to e ; princeps (for -caps), 
principis, stem princip- (for -cap-). 



§§ 56, 57] THIRD DECLENSION: CONSONANT STEMS 



25 



Consonant Stems 
Mute Stems 

56. Masculine and Feminine Nouns with mute stems form the 
Nominative by adding s to the stem. 

A labial (p) is retained before s : as, princep-s. 

A lingual (t, d) is dropped before s : as, miles (stem milit-), ciistos (stem 
custod-). 

A palatal (c, g) unites with s to form x : as, dux (for fduc-s), rex (for 
freg-s). 

a. In dissyllabic stems the final syllable often shows e in the nomina- 
tive and i in the stem : as, princeps, stem princip- (for -cap-). 

57. Nouns of this class are declined as follows : — 



princeps, c, chief 


radix, f., root 


miles, m., soldier 






Stem princip- 


Stem radic- 

SlNGULAR 


Stem milit- 


CASE-ENDINGS 


Nom. 


princeps 


radix 


miles 


-s 


Gen. 


piincipis 


radicis 


militis 


-is 


Dat. 


piincipi 


radici 


militi 


-1 


Ace. 


prlncipem 


radicern 


militem 


-em 


Abl. 


principe 


radice 
Plural 


milit e 


-e 


Nom. 


prlncipes 


radices 


milites 


-es 


Gen. 


prmcipuin 


radicum 


militum 


-um 


Dat. 


principibus 


radicibus 


militibus 


-ibus 


Ace. 


prlncipes 


radices 


milites 


-es 


Abl. 


principibus 


radicibus 


militibus 


-ibus 


i 


;ustos, c, guard 


dux, c, leader 


rex, m., king 






Stem custod- 


Stem duc- 

SlNGULAR 


Stem reg- 


CASE-ENDINGS 


Nom. 


ciistos 


dux 


rex 


-s 


Gen. 


ciistodis 


ducis 


regis 


-is 


Dat. 


custodi 


duel 


regi 


-I 


Ace. 


custodem 


ducem 


regem 


-em 


Abl. 


custode 


duce 


rege 


-e 



26 



DECLENSION OF NOUNS 



57-60 







Plural 






Nom. 


custodes 


duces 


reges 


-gs 


Gen. 


custodum 


ducum 


regum 


-um 


Dat. 


custodibus 


ducibus 


regibus 


-ibus 


Ace. 


custodes 


duces 


reges 


-es 


Abl. 


custodibus 


ducibus 


regibus 


-ibus 



a. In like manner are declined — 
aries, -etis (m.), ram; comes, -itis (a), companion; lapis, -idis (m.), stone; 
iudex, -icis (m.), judge; cornix, -icis (f.), raven, and many other nouns. 

58. Most mute stems are Masculine or Feminine. Those that 
are neuter have for the Nominative the simple stem. But, — 

a. Lingual Stems (t, d) ending in two consonants drop the final mute : 
as, cor (stem cord-), lac (stem lact-). So also stems in St- from the Greek : 
as, poema (stem poemat-). 

b. The stem capit- shows u in the nominative (caput for fcapot). 



59. Nouns of this class are declined as follows : 



( 


:or, n., heart 


caput, n., head 


poema, n. , poem 






Stem cord- 


Stem capit- 

SlNGULAR 


Stem poemat- 


CASE-ENDINGS 


Nom. 


cor 


caput 


poema 




Gen. 


cordis 


capitis 


poematis 


-is 


Dat. 


cordi 


capitl 


poemati 


-1 


Ace. 


cor 


caput 


poema 





Abl. 


corde 


capite 

Plural 


poemate 


-e 


Nom. 


corda 


capita 


poemata 


-a 


Gen. 





capitum 


poematum 


-um 


Dat. 


cordibus 


capitibus 


poematibus 


-ibus 


Ace. 


corda 


capita 


poemata 


-a 


Abl. 


cordibus 


capitibus 


poematibus 


-ibus 



60. The following irregularities require notice : — 
a. Greek neuters with nominative singular in -a (as poema) frequently 
end in -is in the dative and ablative plural, and rarely in -orum in the geni- 
tive plural; as, poematis (for poematibus), poematorum (for poematum). 

b* A number of monosyllabic nouns with mute stems want the geni- 
tive plural (like cor). See § 103. g. 2. 



§§61,62] THIRD DECLENSION: CONSONANT STEMS 



27 



Liquid and Nasal Stems (/, «, f) 

61. In Masculine and Feminine nouns with liquid and nasal 
stems the Nominative is the same as the stem. 

Exceptions are the following : — 

1. Stems in on- drop n in the nominative : as in legio, stem legiSn-. 

2. Stems in din- and gin- drop n and keep an original 6 in the nominative : as 
in virgo, stem virgin-. 1 

3. Stems in in- (not din- or gin-) retain n and have e instead of i in the nom- 
inative : as in cornicen, stem cornicin-. 1 

4. Stems in tr- have -ter in the nominative : as, pater, stem patr-. 2 

62. Nouns of this class are declined as follows : — 



consul, 3i. , consul leo, m. , lion virgo, f. , maiden pater, m. , father 
Stem consul- Stem ledn- Stem virgin- Stem patr- 









Singular 














CASE- 


Nom. 


consul 


leo 


virgo 


pater 





Gen. 


consulis 


leonis 


virginis 


patris 


-is 


Dat. 


consul! 


leonl 


virgin! 


patr! 


-l 


Ace. 


consulem 


leonem 


virgin em 


patrem 


-era 


Abl. 


consule 


leone 


virgine 
Plural 


patre 


-e 


Nom. 


consules 


le5nes 


virgines 


patres 


-es 


Gen. 


consulum 


leonum 


virginum 


patrum 


-um 


Dat. 


consulibus 


leonibus 


virginibus 


patribus 


-ibus 


Ace, 


consules 


leones 


virgines 


patres 


-es 


Abl. 


consulibus 


leonibus 


virginibus 


patribus 


-ibus 



Note 1. — Stems in 11-, rr- (n.) lose one of their liquids in the nominative: as, far, 
f arris ; mel, mellis. 

Note 2. — A few masculine and feminine stems have a nominative in -s as well as 
in -r: as, honos or honor, arbos or arbor. 

Note 3. — Canis, dog, and iuvenis, youth, have -is in the nominative. 

1 These differences depend in part upon special phonetic laws, in accordance with 
which vowels in weakly accented or unaccented syllables are variously modified, and 
in part upon the influence of analogy. 

2 These, no doubt, had originally ter- in the stem, hut this had become weakened 
to tr- in some of the cases even in the parent speech. In Latin only the nominative and 
vocative singular show the e. But cf . Maspitris and Maspiteris (Ma[r]s-piter), quoted by 
Priscian as old forms. 



28 



DECLENSION OE NOUNS 



[§§ 63-65 



63. In Neuter nouns with liquid or nasal stems the Nomina- 
tive is the same as the stem. 

Exceptions : 1. Stems in in- have e instead of i in the nominative : as in 
nomen, stem nomin-. 

2. Most stems in er- and or- have -us in the nominative : as, genus, stem gener-. 1 

64. Nouns of this class are declined as follows : — 

nomen, n., name genus, n., race corpus, n., body aequor, n., sea 
Stem nomin- Stem gener- Stem corpor- Stem aequor- 







Singular 




Nom. 


nomen 


genus 


corpus 


aequor 


Gen. 


nominis 


generis 


corporis 


aequoris 


Dat. 


nomini 


generi 


corpori 


aequori 


Ace. 


nomen 


genus 


corpus 


aequor 


Abl. 


nomine 


genere 

Plural 


corpore 


aequore 


Nom. 


nomina 


genera 


corpora 


aequora 


Gen. 


nominum 


generum 


corporum 


aequorum 


Dat. 


nominibus 


generibus 


corporibus 


aequoribus 


Ace. 


nomina 


genera 


corpora 


aequora 


Abl. 


nominibus 


generibus 


corporibus 


aequoribus 



So also are declined opus, -eris, work; pignus, -eris or -oris, pledge, etc. 

Note. — The following real or apparent liquid and nasal stems have the genitive 
plural in -ium, and are to be classed with the i-stems : imber, linter, uter, venter ; glis, 
mas, mus, [fren] ; also vires (plural of vis: see §79). 



z-Stems 
65. Nouns of this class include — 

1. Pure i-Stems : 

a. Masculine and Feminine parisyllabic 2 nouns in -is and four in -er. 

b. Neuters in -e, -al, and -ar. 

2. Mixed i-Stems, declined in the singular like consonant stems, 
in the plural like i-stems. 

1 These were originally s-stems (cf. § 15. 4). 

2 I.e. having the same number of syllables in the nominative and genitive singular. 



§§ 66-68] 



THIRD DECLENSION: PURE I-STEMS 



29 



Pure ^-Sterns 

66. Masculine and Feminine parisyllabic nouns in -is form the 
Nominative singular by adding s to the stem. 

Four stems in bri- and tri- do not add s to form the nominative, but drop i 
and insert e before r. These are imber, linter, uter, venter. 

67. Nouns of this class are declined as follows : — 



sitis, 


f., thirst 


turris, f., tower 


ignis, m.j fire 


imber, m., rain 


Stem siti- 


Stem turri- 


Stem igni- 


Stem imbri- 






Slngular 




Nom. 


sitis 


turris 


Ignis 


imber 


Gen. 


sitis 


turris 


ignis 


imbris 


Dat. 


sit! 


turri 


Igni 


imbri 


Ace. 


sitim 


turrim (-em) 


ignem 


imbrem 


Abl. 


siti 


turri (-e) 


igni (-e) 


imbri (-e) 






Plural 




Nom. 




turres 


ignes 


imbres 


Gen. 




turrium 


ignium 


imbrium 


Dat. 




turribus 


ignibus 


imbribus 


Ace. 




turris (-es) 


ignis (-es) 


imbris (-es) 


Abl. 




turribus 


ignibus 


imbribus 



68. In Neuters the Nominative is the same as the stem, with 
final i changed to e : as, mare, stem mari-. But most nouns 1 in 
which the i of the stem is preceded by al or ar lose the final vowel 
and shorten the preceding a : as, animal, stem animali-. 2 

a. Neuters in -e, -al, and -ar have -i in the ablative singular, -ium in the 
genitive plural, and -ia in the nominative and accusative plural : as, animal, 
animali, -ia, -ium. 

1 Such are animal, bacchanal, bidental, capital, cervical, cubital, lupercal, minutal, 
puteal, quadrantal, toral, tribunal, vectigal; calcar, cochlear, exemplar, lacunar, laquear, 
liicar, luminar, lupanar, palear, pulvinar, torcular. Cf. the plurals dentalia, frontalia, 
genualia, sponsalia ; altaria, plantaria, specularia, talaria ; also many names of festivals, 
as, Saturnalia. 

2 Exceptions are augurale, collare, focale, navale, penetrale, ramale, sciitale, tibiale; 
alveare, capillare, cochleare. 



30 



DECLENSION OF NOUNS 



[§§ 69-71 



69. Nouns of this class are declined as follows : — 

sedile, n. , seat animal, n. , animal calcar, n. , spur 
Stem sedili- Stem animali- Stem calcari- 



Nom. 


sedile 


Singular 
animal 


calcar 


CASE-ENDINGS 

-e or — 


Gen. 


sedilis 


animalis 


calcaris 


-is 


Dat. 


sedili 


animali 


calcari 


-I 


Ace. 


sedile 


animal 


calcar 


-e or — 


Abl. 


sedili 


animali 

Plural 


calcari 


-l 


Nom. 


sedilia 


animalia 


calcaria 


-ia 


Gen. 


sedllium 


animalium 


calcarium 


-ium 


Dat. 


sedilibus 


animalibus 


calcaribus 


-ibus 


Ace. 


sedilia 


animalia 


calcaria 


-ia 


Abl. 


sedilibus 


animalibus 
Mixed /-Stems 


calcaribus 


-ibus 



70. Mixed i-stems are either original i-stems that have lost their 
i-forms in the singular, or consonant stems that have assumed i- 
forms in the plural. 

Note. — It is sometimes impossible to distinguish between these two classes. 

71. Mixed i-stems have -em in the accusative and -e in the abla- 
tive singular, -ium in the genitive 1 and -is or -es in the accusative 
plural. They include the following : — 

1. Nouns in -es, gen. -is. 2 

2. Monosyllables in -s or -x preceded by a consonant: as, ars, pons, arx. 

3. Polysyllables in -ns or -rs : as, cliens, cohors. 

4 . Nouns in -tas, genitive -tatis (genitive plural usually -um) * : as, civitas. 

5. Penates, optimates, and nouns denoting birth or abode (patriate) in -as, 
-is, plural -ates, -ites : as, Arpinas, plural Arpmates; Quiris, plural Quirites. 

6. The following monosyllables in -s or -x preceded by a vowel : dos, 
fraus, glis, lis, mas, mus, nix, nox, strix, vis. 

1 There is much variety in the practice of the ancients, some of these words having 
-ium, some -um, and some both. 

2 These are acinaces, aedes, alces, caedes, cautes, clades, compages, contages, fames, 
feles, fides (plural), indoles, labes, lues, meles, mSles, niibes, palumbes, proles, propages, 
piibes, sedes, saepes, sordes, strages, strues, suboles, tabes, torques, tudes, vates, vehe"s, 
vepres, verres, vulpes ; aedes has also nominative aedis. 



§§ 72-75] THIRD DECLENSION : MIXED J-STEMS 

72. Nouns of this class are thus declined : — 



31 



nubes, f., cloud urbs, f., city nox, p., night cliens, m., client 
Stem nub(i)- Stem urb(i)- Stem noct(i)- Stem client (i)- 



Nom. nubes 

Gen. nubis 

Dat. niibi 

Ace. nub em 

Abl. nube 



Nom. nubes 

Gen. nubium 

Dat. imbibus 

Ace. nubis(-es) 

Abl. niibibus 



urbs 

urbis 

urbi 

urbem 

urbe 



urbes 

urbium 

urbibus 

urbis(-es) 

urbibus 



Singular 

nox 

noctis 

nocti 

noctem 

nocte 

Plural 

noctes 
noctium 
noctibus 
noctis (-es) 
noctibus 



cliens 

clientis 

client! 

clientem 

cliente 



aetas, f., age 
Stem aetat(i)- 



aetas 

aetatis 

aetati 

aetatem 

aetate 



clientes aetates 

clientium l aetatum 2 

clientibus aetatibus 

clientis (-es) aetatis (-es) 

clientibus aetatibus 



Summary of /-Stems 

73. The i-declension was confused even to the Romans themselves, nor was it stable 
at all periods of the language, early Latin having i-forms which afterwards disap- 
peared. There was a tendency in nouns to lose the i-forms, in adjectives to gain them. 
The nominative plural (-is) 3 was most thoroughly lost, next the accusative singular 
(-im) , next the ablative (-i) ; while the genitive and accusative plural (-ium, -is) were 
retained in almost all. 

74. I-stems show the i of the stem in the following forms : — 

a. They have the genitive plural in -ium (but some monosyllables lack 
it entirely). For a few exceptions, see § 78. 

b. All neuters have the nominative and accusative plural in -ia. 

c. The accusative plural (m. or f.) is regularly -is. 

d. The accusative singular (m. or f.) of a few ends in -im (§ 75). 

e. The ablative singular of all neuters, and of many masculines and 
feminines, ends in -i (see § 76). 

75. The regular case-ending of the Accusative singular of i- 
stems (M. or f.) would be -im : as, sitis, sitim (cf . stella, -am ; servus, 
-urn); but in most nouns this is changed to -em (following the 
consonant declension). 

1 Rarely clientum. 2 Also aetatium. Cf. § 71. 4. 

8 An old, though not the original, ending (see p. 32, footnote 2lc 



32 DECLENSION OF NOUNS [§§ 75-78 

a. The accusative in -im is found exclusively — 

1. In Greek nouns and in names of rivers. 

2. In buris, cucumis, ravis, sitis, tussis, vis. 

3. In adverbs in -tim (being accusative of nouns in -tis), as, partim ; and in 
amussim. 

5. The accusative in -im is found sometimes in febris, puppis, restis, 
turris, securis, sementis, and rarely in many other words. 

76. The regular form of the Ablative singular of i- stems would 
be -I : as, sitis, sitl ; but in most nouns this is changed to -e. 

a. The ablative in -i is found exclusively — 

1. In nouns having the accusative in -im (§ 75) ; also securis. 

2. In the following adjectives used as nouns : aequalis, annalis, aqualis, con- 
sularis, gentilis, molaris, primipilaris, tribulis. 

3. In neuters in -e, -al, -ar : except baccar, iubar, rete, and sometimes mare. 

h. The ablative in -I is found sometimes — 

1. In avis, clavis, febris, finis, ignis, 1 imber, lux, navis, ovis, pelvis, puppis, 
sementis, strigilis, turris, and occasionally in other words. 

2. In the following adjectives used as nouns : affinis, bipennis, canalis, famili- 
aris, natalis, rivalis, sapiens, tridens, triremis, vdcalis. 

Note 1. — The ablative of fames is always fame (§ 105. e). The defective mane has 
sometimes man! (§ 103. b. n.) as ablative. 

Note 2. — Most names of towns in -e (as, Praeneste, Tergeste) and Soracte, a moun- 
tain, have the ablative in -e. Caere has Caerete. 

Note 3. — Canis and iuvenis have cane, iuvene. 

77. The regular Nominative plural of i-stems is -es, 2 but -is is 
occasionally found. The regular Accusative plural -is is common, 
but not exclusively used in any word. An old form for both 
cases is -eis (diphthong). 

78. The following have -um (not -ium) in the genitive plural: 

1. Always, — canis, iuvenis, 3 ambages, mare (once only, otherwise want- 
ing), volucris ; regnlarly, sedes, vates. 

2. Sometimes, — apis, caedes, clades, mensis, strues, suboles. 

3. Very rarely, — patrials in -as, -atis ; -is, -itis ; as, Arpinas, Arpinatum ; 
Samnis, Samnitum. 

1 Always in the formula aqua et igni interdici (§ 401) . 

2 The Indo-European ending of the nominative plural, -es (preserved in Greek in 
consonant stems, as 6pTv£, 8pTvy-es) , contracts with a stem- vowel and gives -es in the 
Latin i-declension (cf. the Greek plural 6eis). This -es was extended to consonant 
stems in Latin. 8 Canis and iuvenis are really n-stems. 



§79] 



THIRD DECLENSION: IRREGULAR NOUNS 



33 



Irregular Nouns of the Third Declension 

79. In many nouns the stem is irregularly modified in the nomi- 
native or other cases. Some peculiar forms are thus declined : — 





bos, c. 


senex, m. 


caro, f. 


OS, N. 


VIS, F. 




ox, cow 


old man 


flesh 


bone 


force 






Singular 






Nom. 


bos 


senex 


caro 


OS 


vis 


Gen. 


bovis 


senis 


carnis 


ossis 


vis (rare) 


Dat. 


bovi 


seni 


carni 


OSSl 


vi (rare) 


Ace. 


bovem 


senem 


carnem 


OS 


vim 


Abl. 


bove 


sene 


carne 


osse 


VI 



cattle Pl6rai - 

Nom. boves series carries 

Gen. bourn senum carnium 

Dat. bobus (bubus) senibus carnibus 

Ace. boves senes carries 

Abl. bobus (bubus) senibus carnibus 



ossibus 



strength 



ossa 


vires 


ossium 


vlrium 


ossibus 


viribus 


ossa 


viris (-es) 



viribus 





SUS, c. 




Iuppiter, m. 


nix, f. 


iter, n. 




swine 




Jupiter 

Singular 


snow 


march 


Nom. 


siis 




Iuppiter * 


nix 


iter 


Gen. 


suis 




Iovis 


nivis 


itineris 


Dat. 


sui 




Iovi 


nivi 


itineri 


Ace. 


suem 




Ioveni 


nivem 


iter 


Abl. 


sue 




love 

Plural 


nive 


itinere 


Nom. 


sues 






nives 


itinera 


Gen. 


suum 






nivium 


itinerum 


Dat. 


subus 


(suibus) 




nivibus 


itineribus 


Ace. 


sues 






nives 


itinera 


Abl. 


subus 


(suibus) 


1 Also Iupiter. 


nivibus 


itineribus 



34 DECLENSION OF NOUNS [§§79-81 

a. Two vowel-stems in u-, grii- and su-, which follow the third declension, 
add s in the nominative, and are inflected like mute stems : grus has also 
a nominative gruis ; sus has both suibus and subus in the dative and ablative 
plural, grus has only gruibus. 

b. In the stem bov- (bou-) the diphthong ou becomes o in the nominative 
(bos, b5vis). 

In nav- (nau-) an i is added (navis, -is), and it is declined like turris (§ 67). 
In Iov- (= Zevs) the diphthong (ou) becomes u in Iu-piter (for -pater), 
genitive Iovis, etc. ; but the form Iuppiter is preferred. 

c. In iter, itineris (n.), iecur, iecinoris (iecoris) (n.), supellex, supellectilis 
(f.), the nominative has been formed from a shorter stem ; in senex, senis, 
from a longer ; so that these words show a combination of forms from two 
distinct stems. 

d. In nix, nivis the nominative retains a g from the original stem, the g 
uniting with s, the nominative ending, to form x. In the other cases the 
stem assumes the form niv- and it adds i in the genitive plural. 

6. Vas (n.), vasis, keeps s throughout ; plural vasa, vasorum. A dative 
plural vasibus also occurs. There is a rare singular vasum. 

The Locative Case 

80. The Locative form for nouns of the third declension ends 
in the singular in -I or -e, in the plural in -ibus : as, run, in the 
country; Carthagini or Carthagine, at Carthage; Trallibus, at Tralles. 1 

Greek Nouns of the Third Declension 

81. Many nouns originally Greek — mostly proper names — 
retain Greek forms of inflection. So especially — 

1. Genitive singular in -os, as, tigridos. 

2. Accusative singular in -a, as, aethera. 

3. Vocative singular like the stem, as, Pericle, Orpheu, Atla. 

4. Nominative plural in -es, as, heroes. 

5. Accusative plural in -as, as, heroas. 

1 The Indo-European locative singular ended in -I, which became -S in Latin. Thus 
the Latin ablative in -e is, historically considered, a locative. The Latin ablative in 
-i (from -id) was an analogical formation (cf . -a from -ad, -5 from -od), properly belong- 
ing to i-stems. With names of towns and a few other words, a locative function was 
ascribed to forms in -i (as, Carthagini) , partly on the analogy of the real locative of 
o-stems (as, Corinthi, § 49. a) ; but forms in -S also survived in this use. The plural 
-bus is properly dative or ablative, but in forms like Trallibus it has a locative func- 
tion. Cf . Philippis (§ 49. a), in which the ending -is is, historically considered, either 
locative, or instrumental, or both, and Athenis (§ 43. c), in which the ending is formed 
on the analogy of o-stems. 



§§ 82, 83] 



THIRD DECLENSION: GREEK NOUNS 



35 



82. Some of these forms are seen in the following examples : — 

herds, m., hero lampas, f., torch basis, f., base tigris, c, tiger nais, f., naiad 





Stem hero- 


Stem lampad- 


Stem basi- 

5INGULAR 


Stem { ^ rid 
I tign- 


Stem naid- 


Nom. 


heros 


lampas 


basis 


tigris 


nais 


Gen. 


herois 


lampados 


baseos 


tigris(-idos) naidos 


Dat. 


heroi 


lampadi 


basi 


tigri 


naidi 


Ace. 


hero a 


larapada 


basin 


tigrin(-ida) naida 


Abl. 


heroe 


lampade 


basi 
Plural 


tigri(-ide) 


naide 


Nom. 


heroe's 


lampad&s 


bases 


tigres 


naide's 


Gen. 


heroum 


lampadum 


basium(-e6rj 


.) tigrium 


naidum 


D.,A.i 


heroibus 


lampadibus 


basibus 


tigribus 


naidibus 


Ace. 


heroes 


lampadas 


basis (-eis) 


tigris (-id5s) naid&s 






Proper Names 






Nom. 


Dido 




Simois 




Capys 


Gen. 


Dldonis(Didus) 


Simoeutis 




Capyos 


Dat. 


Didoni(Did6) 


Simoenti 




Capyi 


Ace. 


Didonem(-< 


5) 


Simoenta 




Capyn 


Abl. 


Dido ne (-6) 




Simoeute 




Capye 


Voc. 


Dido 




- Simois 




Capy 


Nom. 


Orpheus 




Pericles 




Paris 


Gen. 


Orphei(-eos) 


Periclis(-i) 




Paridis 


Dat. 


Orphei(-eo 


) 


Pericli(-i) 


I 


Paridi 
Paridem, 


Ace. 


Orphea(-um) 


Periclem(-ea 


,-en) j 


Parim(-in) 


Abl. 


Orpheo 




Pericle 




Paride, Pari 


Voc. 


Orpheu 




Pericles (-e) 


• 


Pari 


Note. — The regular Latin forms i 


may be used for most of the above. 



83. Other peculiarities are the following : — 

a. Delphinus, -I (m.), has also the form delphin, -inis ; Salamis, -is (f.), 
has ace. Salamina. 

&. Most stems in id- (nom. -is) often have also the forms of i-stems: as, 
tigris, gen. -idis (-idos) or -is ; ace. -idem (-ida) or -im (-in) ; abl. -ide or -i. 
But many, including most feminine proper names, have ace. -idem (-ida), 
abl. -ide, — not -im or -i. (These stems are irregular also in Greek.) 

1 Dative, herSisin (once only) . 



36 DECLENSION OF NOUNS [§§83-86 

c. Stems in on- sometimes retain -n in the nominative : as, Agamem- 
n5n (or Agamemno), genitive -onis, accusative -6na. 

d. Stems in ont- form the nominative in -on: as, horizon, Xenophon; 
but a few are occasionally Latinized into on- (nom. -o) : as, Draco, -onis ; 
Antipho, -onis. 

e. Like Simois are declined stems in ant-, ent-, and a few in unt- (nomi- 
native in -as, -is, -us) : as, Atlas, -antis ; Trapezus, -untis. 

/. Some words fluctuate between different declensions : as Orpheus be- 
tween the second and the third. 

g. -on is found in the genitive plural in a few Greek titles of books : as, 
Metamorphoseon, of the Metamorphoses (Ovid's well-known poem); Georgicon, 
of the Georgics (a poem of Virgil). 

Gender in the Third Declension 

84. The Gender of nouns of this declension must be learned 
by practice and from the Lexicon. Many are masculine or femi- 
nine by nature or in accordance with the general rules for gen- 
der (p. 15). The most important rules for the others, with their 
principal exceptions, are the following : — 1 

85. Masculine are nouns in -or, -os, -er, -6s (gen. -itis), -ex (gen. 
-icis): as, color, flos, imber, gurges (gurgitis), vertex (verticis). 

Exceptions are the following : -— 
a. Feminine are arbor ; cos, dos ; linter. 

b* Neuter are ador, aequor, cor, marmor ; os (oris) ; also os (ossis) ; 
cadaver, iter, tuber, uber, ver; and names of plants and trees in -er: as, 
acer, papaver. 

86. Feminine are nouns in-o, -as, -es, -is, -us, -x, and in -s preceded 
by a consonant : as, legio, civitas, nubes, avis, virtus, arx, urbs. The 
nouns in -o are mostly those in -do and -go, and abstract and collec- 
tive nouns in -io. 

Exceptions are the following : — 

a. Masculine are le5, leonis ; ligo, onis ; sermo, -onis ; also cardo, harpago, 
margo, ordo, turbo ; and concrete nouns in -io : as, pugio, iinio, papilio ; 2 
acinaces, aries, celes, lebes, paries, pes ; 

1 Some nouns of doubtful or variable gender are omitted. 

2 Many nouns in -6 (gen. -onis) are masculine by signification: as, ger5, carrier; 
restio, ropemaker ; and family names (originally nicknames) : as, Cicero, Naso. See 
§§ 236. c, 255. 



§§ 86-89] 



FOURTH DECLENSION 



37 



Nouns in -nis and -guis : as, ignis, sanguis ; also axis, caulis, collis, cucumis, 
ensis, fascis, follis, fustis, lapis, mensis, orbis, piscis, postis, pulvis, vomis ; 
mus; 

calix, fornix, grex, phoenix, and nouns in -ex (gen. -icis) (§ 85) ; 
dens, fons, mons, pons. 

Note. — Some nouns in -is and -ns which are masculine were originally adjectives 
or participles agreeing with a masculine noun: as, Aprilis (sc. mensis), m., April; 
oriens (sc. sol), m., the east; annalis (sc. liber), m., the year-book. 

b. Neuter are vas (vasis) ; crus, ius, pus, rus, tus. 

87. Neuter are nouns in -a, -e, -1, -n, -ar, -ur, -us : as, poema, mare, 
animal, nomen, calcar, robur, corpus ; also lac and caput. 

Exceptions are the following : — 

a. Masculine are sal, sol, pecten, vultur, lepus. 

b. Feminine is pecus (gen. -udis). 

FOURTH DECLENSION 

88. The Stem of nouns of the Fourth Declension ends in u-. 
This is usually weakened to i before -bus. Masculine and Femi- 
nine nouns form the nominative by adding s; Neuters have for 
nominative the simple stem, but with u (long). 

89. Nouns of the Fourth Declension are declined as follows : 



manus 


5, f., hand 


lacus, m., lake 




genu, n., knee 




Stem manu- 


Stem lacu- 




Stem genu- 










Singular 










< 


3ASE-ENDINGS 




CASE-ENDINGS 


Nom. 


manus 


lacus 


-US 


genu 


-u 


Gen. 


manus 


lacus 


-us 


genus 


-us 


Dat. 


manui(-u) 


lacui(-ii) 


-Ul(-ii) 


genu 


-u 


Ace. 


manum 


lacum 


•um 


genu 


-u 


Abl. 


manu 


laeu 


-U 

Plural 


genu 


-u 


Nom. 


manus 


lacus 


-us 


genua 


-ua 


Gen. 


manuum 


lacuum 


-uum 


genuum 


-uum 


Dat. 


manibus 


lacubus 


-ibus(-ubus) 


genibws 


-ibus 


Ace. 


manus 


lacus 


-us 


genua 


•ua 


Abl. 


manibus 


lacubus 


-ibus(-ubus) 


genibus 


-ibus 



38 DECLENSION OF NOUNS [§§90-93 

Gender in the Fourth Declension 

90. Most nouns of the Fourth Declension in -us are Masculine. 

Exceptions : The following are Feminine : acus, anus, colus, domus, idus (plural), 
inanus, nurus, porticus, qumquatrus (plural), socrus, tribus, with a few names of 
plants and trees. Also, rarely, penus, specus. 

91. The only Neuters of the Fourth Declension are cornu, genu, 
pecu. (§ 105./), veru. 1 

Case-Forms in the Fourth Declension 

92. The following peculiarities in case-forms of the Fourth 
Declension require notice : — 

a, A genitive singular in -I (as of the second declension) sometimes 
occurs in nouns in -tus : as, senatus, genitive senati (regularly senatus). 

b» In the genitive plural -uum is sometimes pronounced as one sylla- 
ble, and may then be written -um : as, currum (Aen. vi. 653) for curruum. 

Co The dative and ablative plural in -iibus are retained in partus and 
tribus; so regularly in artus and lacus, and occasionally in other words; 
portus and specus have both -ubus and -ibus. 

d. Most names of plants and trees, and colus, distaff, have also forms of 
the second declension : as, f icus, Jig, genitive f icus or fici. 

e. An old genitive singular in -uis or -uos and an old genitive plural in 
-uom occur rarely : as, senatuis, senatuos ; fluctuom. 

/. The ablative singular ended anciently in -ud (cf. § 43. n. 1) : as, 
magistratud. 

93. Domus (f.), house, has two stems ending in u- and o-. Hence 
it shows forms of both the fourth and second declensions : 





Singular 


Plural 


Nom. 


domus 


domus 


Gen. 


do: rus (doml, loc.) 


domuum (domorum) 


Dat. 


domui (domo) 


domibus 


Ace. 


domum 


domos (domus) 


Abl. 


domo (domu) 


domibus 



Note 1. — The Locative is domi (rarely domui), at home. 

Note 2. — The Genitive domi occurs iD Plautus ; domorum is late or poetic. 

1 A few other neuters of this declension are mentioned by the ancient grammarians 
as occurring in certain cases. 



§§ 94-96] 



FIFTH DECLENSION (#-STEMS) 



39 



94. Most nouns of the Fourth Declension are formed from 

verb-stems, or roots, by means of the suffix -tus (-sus) (§ 238. h) : 

cantus, song, can, can5, sing ; casus (for fcad-tus), chance, cad, cadd, fall ; 
exsulatus, exile, from exsulo, to be an exile (exsul). 

a. Many are formed either from verb-stems not in use, or by analogy : 
consulates (as if from fconsulo, -are), senatus, incestus. 

h. The accusative and the dative or ablative of nouns in -tus (-sus) form 
the Supines of verbs (§ 159. by. as, spectatum, petitum; dictu, visii. 

c. Of many verbal derivatives only the ablative is used as a noun : as, 
iussu (meo), by (my) command ; so iniussu (populi), without (the people 's) order. 
Of some only the dative is used : as, divisui. 

FIFTH DECLENSION (e-STEMS) 

95. The Stem of nouns of the Fifth Declension ends in e-, which 
appears in all the cases. The Nominative is formed from the stem 
by adding s. 

96. Nouns of the Fifth Declension are declined as follows : — 



res, f., tiling 


dies, m., day 


fides, f. , faith 






Stem re- 


Stem die- 
SlNGULAR 


Stem fide- 


case-endings 


Nom. 


res 


dies 


tides 


-es 


Gen. 


re! 


die! (die) 


fidei 


-el (-e) 


Dat. 


rgi 


die! (die) 


fldel 


-ei (-§) 


Ace. 


rem 


diem 


fidem 


-em 


Abl. 


re 


die 
Plural 


fide 


-e 


Nom. 


res 


dies 




-es 


Gen. 


rerum 


dierum 




-erum 


Dat. 


rebus 


diebus 




-ebus 


Ace. 


res 


dies 




-es 


Abl. 


rebus 


diebus 




-ebus 



Note. — The e of the stem is shortened in the genitive and dative singular of fides, 
spes, res, but in these it is found long in early Latin. In the accusative singular e 
is always short. 



40 DECLENSION OF NOUNS [§§97-99 

Gender in the Fifth Declension 

97. All nouns of the Fifth Declension are Feminine, except 
dies (usually M.), day, and meridies (m.), noon. 

a. Dies is sometimes feminine in the singular, especially in phrases indi- 
cating a fixed time, and regularly feminine when used of time in general: 
as, constitute die, on a set day; longa dies, a long time. 

Case-Forms in the Fifth Declension 

98. The following peculiarities require notice : — 

a. Of nouns of the fifth declension, only dies and res are declined through- 
out. Most want the plural, which is, however, found in the nominative or 
accusative in acies, effigies, eluvies, fades, glacies, series, species, spes. 1 

b. The Locative form of this declension ends in -e. It is found only in 
certain adverbs and expressions of time : — 

hodie, to-day ; die quarts (old, quart!) , the fourth day ; 

perendie, day after to-morrow ; pridie, the day before. 

c. The fifth declension is closely related to the first, and several nouns 
have forms of both : as, materia, -ies ; saevitia, -ies. The genitive and dative 
in -el are rarely found in these words. 

d» Some nouns vary between the fifth and the third declension : as, 
requies, saties (also satias, genitive -atis), plebes (also plebs, genitive plebis), 
fames, genitive famis, ablative fame. 

Note. — In the genitive and dative -el (-ei) was sometimes contracted into -el: 
as, tribiinus plebei, tribune of the people (plebes). Genitives in -i and -e also occur: 
as, dii (Aen. i. 636), plebi-scltum, acie (B. G. ii. 23). A few examples of the old geni- 
tive in -es are found (cf. -as in the first declension, § 43. b). The dative has rarely -e, 
and a form in -I is cited. 

DEFECTIVE NOUNS 
Nouns wanting in the Plural 

99. Some nouns are ordinarily found in the Singular number 
only (singuldria tantum). These are — 

1. Most proper names : as, Caesar, Ccesar; Gallia, Gaul. 

2. Names of things not counted, but reckoned in mass : as, aurum, gold : 
aer, air; triticum, wheat. 

3. Abstract nouns: as, ambitio, ambition; fortitudo, courage; calor, heat. 

1 The forms facigrum, specierum, speciebus, sperum, spebus, are cited by grammarians, 
also speres, speribus, and some of these occur in late authors. 



§§ 100-102] DEFECTIVE NOUNS 41 

100. Many of these nouns, however, are used in the plural in 
some other sense. 

a. The plural of a proper name may be applied to tw© or more persons 
or places, or even things, and so become strictly common : — 

duodecim Caesares, the twelve Ccesars. 
Galliae, the two Gauls (Cis- and Transalpine). 
Castores, Castor and Pollux ; loves, images of Jupiter. 

b. The plural of names of things reckoned in mass may denote particular 
objects: as, aera, bronze utensils, nives, snowflakes; or different kinds of a thing : 
as, aeres, airs (good and bad). 

c. The plural of abstract nouns denotes occasions or instances of the quality, 
or the like : — 

quaedam excellentiae, some cases of superiority ; otia, periods of rest ; calores, 
frigora, times of heat and cold. 

Nouns wanting in the Singular 

101. Some nouns are commonly or exclusively found in the 
Plural (plurdlia tantum). Such are — 

1. Many names of towns : as, Athenae {Athens), Thurii, Philippi, Veil. 

2. Names of festivals and games : as, Olympia, the Olympic Games; Baccha- 
nalia, feast of Bacchus ; Quinquatriis, festival of Minerva ; ludi Romani, the 
Roman Games. 

3. Names of classes: as, optimates, the upper classes; maiores, ancestors; 
llberl, children; penates, household gods; Quirites, citizens (of Rome). 

4. Words plural by signification: as, arma, weapons; artus, joints; divi- 
tiae, riches; scalae, stairs; valvae, folding-doors ; fores, double-doors; angustiae, 
a narrow pass (narrows) ; moenia, city walls. 

Note 1. — Some words, plural by signification in Latin, are translated by English 
nouns in the singular number : as, deliciae, delight, darling; fauces, throat; fidSs, lyre 
(also singular in poetry) ; insidiae, ambush; cervices, neck; viscera, flesh. 

Note 2. — The poets often use the plural number for the singular, sometimes for 
metrical reasons, sometimes from a mere fashion : as, ora (for os), the face ; sceptra (for 
sceptrum), sceptre; silentia (for silentium) , silence. 

102. Some nouns of the above classes (§ 101. 1-4), have a corre- 
sponding singular, as noun or adjective, often in a special sense : 

1. As noun, to denote a single object : as, Bacchanal, a spot sacred to 
Bacchus; optimas, an aristocrat. 

2. As adjective : as, Cato Maior, Cato the Elder. 

3. In a sense rare, or found only in early Latin: as, scala, a ladder; 
valva, a door; artus, a joint. 



42 _ DECLENSION OF NOUNS [§103 

Nouns Defective in Certain Cases 
103. Many nouns are defective in case-forms : l — 

a. Indeclinable nouns, used only as nominative and accusative singular : 
fas, nefas, instar, nihil, opus (need), secus. 

Note 1. — The indeclinable adjective necesse is used as a nominative or accusative. 
Note 2. — The genitive nihil! and the ablative nihilo (from nihilum, nothing) occur. 

b. Nouns found in one case only (monoptotes) : — 

1. In the nominative singular: glos (f.). 

2. In the genitive singular : dicis, nauci (n.). 

3. In the dative singular : divisui (m.) (cf. § 94. c). 

4. In the accusative singular : amussim (m.) ; venum (dative veno in Tacitus). 

5. In the ablative singular: pondo (n.) ; mane (n.) ; astu (m.), by craft; iussu, 
iniussu, natu, and many other verbal nouns in -us (m.) (§ 94. c). 

Note. — Mane is also used as an indeclinable accusative, and an old form mani is 
used' as ablative. Pondo with a numeral is often apparently equivalent to pounds. A 
nominative singular astus and a plural astus occur rarely in later writers. 

6. In the accusative plural : mfitias. 

c. Nouns found in two cases only (diptotes): — 

1. In the nominative and ablative singular : fors, forte (f.). 

2. In the genitive and ablative singular : spontis (rare), sponte (f.). 

3. In the accusative singular and plural : dicam, dicas (f.). 

4. In the accusative and ablative plural: foras, foris (f.) (cf. fores), used as 
adverbs. 

d* Nouns found in three cases only (triptotes) : — 

1. In the nominative, accusative, and ablative singular : impetus, -um, -u (m.) 2 ; 
lues, -em, -e (f.). 

2. In the nominative, accusative, and dative or ablative plural : grates, -ibus (f) . 

3. In the nominative, genitive, and dative or ablative plural : iugera, -um, -ibus 
(n.) ; but iugerum, etc., in the singular (cf. § 105. 6). 

e. Nouns found in four cases only (tetraptotes) : — 

In the genitive, dative, accusative, ablative singular: dici5nis, -I, -em, -e (f.). 

/• Nouns declined regularly in the plural, but defective in the singular : — 

1. Nouns found in the singular, in genitive, dative, accusative, ablative: frugis, 
-I, -em, -e (f.) ; opis, -i (once only), -em, -e (f. ; nominative Ops as a divinity). 

2. Nouns found in the dative, accusative, ablative: preci, -em, -e (f.). 

3. Nouns found in the accusative and ablative : cassem, -e (f.) ; sordem, -e (f.). 

4. Nouns found in the ablative only : ambage (p.) ; fauce (f.) ; obice (c). 

g. Nouns regular in the singular, defective in the plural : — 

1 Some early or late forms and other rarities are omitted. 

2 The dative singular impetui and the ablative plural impetibus occur once each. 






§§ 103-105] VARIABLE NOUNS 43 

1. The following neuters have in the plural the nominative and accusative 
only : fel (fella), far (farra), hord6um (hordea), ius, broth (iura), mel (mella), murmur 
(murmura), pus (pura), rus (rura), tus or thus (tura). 

Note. — The neuter ius, right, has only iura in classical writers, but a very rare geni- 
tive plural iurum occurs in old Latin. 

2. calx, cor, cos, crux, fax, faex, lanx, lux, nex, 6s (oris), 1 os (ossis), 2 pax, pix, 
ros, sal, sol, vas (vadis), want the genitive plural. 

3. Most nouns of the fifth declension want the whole or part of the plural 
(see § 98. a). 

h. Nouns defective in both singular and plural : — 

1. Noun found in the genitive, accusative, ablative singular; nominative, 
accusative, dative, ablative plural : vicis, -em, -e ; -es, -ibus. 

2. Noun found in the genitive, dative, accusative, and ablative singular; 
genitive plural wanting: dapis, -i, -em, -e; -es, -ibus. 3 

VARIABLE NOUNS 

104. Many nouns vary either in Declension or in Gender. 

105. Nouns that vary in Declension are called hetero elites.* 

a. Colus (f.), distaff; domus (f.), house (see § 93), and many names 
of plants in -us, vary between the Second and Fourth Declensions. 

b» Some nouns vary between the Second and Third : as, iugerum, -i, -o, 
ablative -o or -e, plural -a, -um, -ibus ; Mulciber, genitive -beri and -beris ; 
sequester, genitive -tri and -tris ; vas, vasis, and (old) vasum, -l (§ 79. e). 

c* Some vary between the Second, Third, and Fourth : as, penus, penum, 
genitive peni and penoris, ablative penu. 

d. Many nouns vary between the First and Fifth (see § 98. c). 

e. Some vary between the Third and Fifth. Thus, — requies has geni- 
tive -etis, dative wanting, accusative -etem or -em, ablative -e (once -ete) ; 
fames, regularly of the third declension, has ablative fame (§ 76. n. 1), 
and pubes (m.) has once dative piibe (in Plautus). 

/. Pecus varies between the Third and Fourth, having pecoris, etc., but 
also nominative pecu, ablative pecu ; plural pecua, genitive pecuum. 

g. Many vary between different stems of the same declension : as, femur 
(n.), genitive -oris, also -inis (as from ffemen); iecur (n.), genitive iecinoris, 
iocinoris, iecoris ; munus (n.), plural miinera and munia. 

1 The ablative plural oribus is rare, the classical idiom being in ore omnium, in every- 
body's mouth, etc., not in oribus omnium. 

2 The genitive plural ossium is late ; ossuum (from ossua, plural of a neuter u-stem) 
is early and late. 

3 An old nominative daps is cited. 

4 That is, "nouns of different inflections" (erepos, another, and k\Lvw, to infect). 



44 



DECLENSION OF NOUNS 



[§§ 106, 107 



106. Nouns that vary in Gender are said to be heterogeneous. 1 
a. The following have a masculine form in -us and a neuter in -urn : 
balteus, caseus, clipeus, collum, cingulum, pileus, tergum, vallum, with many 
others of rare occurrence. 

&. The following have in the Plural a different gender from that of the 
Singular : — 

balneae (f.), baths (an establishment). 

caelos (m. ace, Lucr.). 

carbasa (n.) (-orum), sails. 

deliciae (f.), pet. 

epulae (f.), feast. 

freni (m.) or frena (n.), a bridle. 

ioca (n.), ioci (m.), jests. 

loca (n.), loci (m., usually topics, passages in books). 

rastri (m.), rastra (n.), rakes. 



balneum (n.), bath; 
caelum (n.), heaven; 
carbasus (f.), a sail; 
delirium (n.), pleasure; 
epulum (n.), feast; 
frenum (n.), a bit; 
iocus (m.), a jest; 
locus (m.), place; 
rastrum (n.), a rake; 



Note. — Some of these nouns are heteroclites as well as heterogeneous. 



107. Many nouns are found in 

aedes, -is (f.), temple; 

aqua (f.), water ; 

auxilium (n.), help ; 

bonum (n.), a good; 

career (m.), dungeon; 

castrum (n.), fort; 

comitium (n.), place of assembly ; 

copia (f.), plenty ; 

fides (f.), harp-string; 

finis (m.), end; 

fortuna (f.), fortune ; 

gratia (f.), favor (rarely, thanks); 

hortus (m.), a garden; 

impedlmentum (n.) hindrance; 

littera (f.), letter (of alphabet) ; 

locus (m.), place [plural loca (n.)] ; 

ludus (m.), sport; 

mos (m.), habit, custom; 

natalis (m.), birthday ; 

opera (f.), work; 

[ops,] opis (p.), help (§ 103./. 1); 

pars (f.), part; 

rostrum (n.), beak of a ship; 

sal (m. or n.), salt; 

tabella (f.), tablet; 



the Plural in a peculiar sense: — 

aedes, -ium, house. 

aquae, mineral springs, a watering-place. 

auxilia, auxiliaries. 

bona, goods, property. 

carceres, barriers (of race-course). 

castra, camp. 

comitia, an election (town-meeting). 

cdpiae, stores, troops. 

fides, lyre. 

fines, bounds, territories. 

fortunae, possessions. 

gratiae, thanks (also, the Graces). 

horti, pleasure-grounds. 

impedimenta, baggage. 

litterae, epistle, literature. 

loci, 2 topics, places in books. 

ludi, public games. 

mores, character. 

natales, descent, origin. 

operae, day-laborers ("hands"). 

opes, resources, wealth. 

partes, part (on the stage), party. 

rdstra, speaker's platform. 

sales, witticisms. 

tabellae, documents, records. 



1 That is, "of different genders" (trepos, another, and 7^05, gender). 

2 In early writers the regular plural. 



108] NAMES OF PERSONS 45 



NAMES OF PERSONS 

108. A Roman had regularly three names: — (1) the praenomen, 
or personal name ; (2) the nomen, or name of the gens or house ; 
(3) the cognomen, or family name : — 
Thus in Marcus Tullius Cicero we have — 
Marcus, the praendmen, like our Christian or given name ; 
Tullius, the nomen, properly an adjective denoting of the Tullian gens (or 

house) whose original head was a real or supposed Tullus ; 
CicerS, the cognomen, or family name, often in origin a nickname, — in this 
case from cicer, a vetch, or small pea. 

Note. — When two persons of the same family are mentioned together, the cogno- 
men is usually put in the plural : as, Publius et Servius Sullae. 

a. A fourth or fifth name was sometimes given as a mark of honor or 
distinction, or to show adoption from another gens. 

Thus the complete name of Scipio the Younger was Publius Cornelius Scipio 
Africanus Aemilianus : Africanus, from his exploits in Africa ; Aemilianus, as 
adopted from the iEmilian gens. 1 

Note. — The Romans of the classical period had no separate name for these addi- 
tions, but later grammarians invented the word agnomen to express them. 

b. Women had commonly in classical times no personal names, but were 
known only by the nomen of their gens. 

Thus, the wife of Cicero was Terentia, and his daughter Tullia. A second 
daughter would have been called Tullia secunda or minor, a third daughter, Tullia 
tertia, and so on. 

c. The commonest prsenomens are thus abbreviated : — 

A. Aulus. L. Lucius. Q. Quintus. 

App. (Ap.) Appius. M. Marcus. Ser. Servius. 

C. (G.) Gaius (Caius) (cf. § 1. a). M\ Manius. Sex. (S.) Sextus. 
Cn. (Gn.) Gnaeus (Cneius). Mam. Mamercus. Sp. Spurius. 

D. Decimus. N. (Num.) Numerius T. Titus. 

K. Kaeso (Caeso). P. Publius. Ti. (Tib.) Tiberius. 

Note 1. — In the abbreviations C. and Cn., the initial character has the value of G 
(§l.a). 

1 In stating officially the full name of a Roman it was customary to include the 
praenomina of the father, grandfather, and great-grandfather, together with the name 
of the tribe to which the individual belonged. Thus in an inscription we find M. TVL- 
LIVS M. F. M. N. M. PR. COR. CICERO, i.e. Marcus Tullius Marci filius Marci nepos Marci pro- 
nep5s Cornelia tribu CicerS. The names of grandfather and great-grandfather as well as 
that of the tribe are usually omitted in literature. The name of a wife or daughter is 
usually accompanied by that of the husband or father in the genitive : as, Postumia 
Servi Sulpicii (Suet. Iul. 50), Postumia, wife of Servius Sulpicius; Caecilia Metelli 
(Div. i. 104), Caecilia, daughter of Metellus. 



46 



DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES 



[§§ 109, 110 



ADJECTIVES 

109, Adjectives and Participles are in general formed and de- 
clined like Nouns, differing from them only in their use. 

1. In accordance with their use, they distinguish gender by different 
forms in the same word, and agree with their nouns in gender, number, and 
case. Thus, — ■ 

bonus imer, the good boy. 
bona puella, the good girl. 
bonum donum, the good gift. 

2. In their inflection they are either (1) of the First and Second Declen- 
sions, or (2) of the Third Declension. 

FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS (a- AND 0-STEMS) 

110. Adjectives of the First and Second Declensions (a- and 
o-stems) are declined in the Masculine like servus, puer, or ager; 
in the Feminine like stella ; and in the Neuter like bellum. 

The regular type of an adjective of the First and Second Declen- 
sions is bonus, -a, -urn, which is thus declined : — 

bonus, bona, bonum, good 





MASCULINE 


FEMININE 


neuter 




Stem bono- 


Stem bona- 

SlNGULAR 


Stem bono- 


Nom. 


bonus 


bona 


bonum 


Gen. 


boni 


bonae 


boni 


Dat. 


bono 


bonae 


bono 


Ace. 


bonum 


bonam 


bonum 


Abl. 


bono 


bona 


bono 


Voc. 


bone 


bona 
Plural 


bonum 


Nom. 


boni 


bonae 


bona 


Gex. 


bonorum 


bonarum 


bonorum 


Dat. 


bonis 


bonis 


bonis 


Ace. 


bonos 


bonas 


bona 


Abl. 


bonis 


bonis 


bonis 



§§ no, in] 



FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS 



47 



Note. — Stems in quo- have nominative -cus (-quos), -qua, -cum (-quom), accusative 
-cum (-quom), -quam, -cum (-quom), to avoid quu- (see §§ 6. b and 46. N. 2). Thus,— 
Nom. propincus (-quos) propinqua propincum (-quom) 

Gen. propinqul propinquae propinqui, etc. 

But most modern editions disregard this principle. 

a. The Genitive Singular masculine of adjectives in -ius ends in -ii, and 
the Vocative in -ie ; not in -I, as in nouns (cf . § 49. b, c) ; as, Lacedaemonius, 
-ii, -ie. 

Note. — The possessive meus, my, has the vocative masculine mi (cf. § 145). 

111. Stems ending in ro- preceded by e form the Nominative 
Masculine like puer (§ 47) and are declined as follows: — 

miser, misera, miserum, ivretched 





MASCULINE 


FEMININE 


NEUTER 




Stem misero- 


Stem misera- 

SlNGULAR 


Stem misero- 


Nom. 


miser 


misera 


rniserum 


Gen. 


miseri 


miserae 


miseri 


Dat. 


misero 


miserae 


miser5 


Ace. 


miser urn 


miser am 


miserum 


Abl. 


misero 


misera 
Plural 


misero 


Nom. 


miseri 


miserae 


misera 


Gen. 


miserorum 


miserarum 


miserorum 


Dat. 


miseris 


miseris 


miseris 


Ace. 


miseros 


miseras 


misera 


Abl. 


miseris 


miseris 


miseris 



a. Like miser are declined asper, gibber, lacer, liber, prosper (also pros- 
penis), satur (-ura, -urum), tener, with compounds of -fer and -ger : as, saeti- 
ger, -era, -erum, bristle-bearing ; also, usually, dexter. In these the e belongs to 
the stem ; but in dextra it is often omitted : as, dextra manus, the right hand. 

Note. — Stems in ero- (as procerus), with morigerus, properus, have the regular nomi- 
native masculine in -us. 

b. The following lack a nominative singular masculine in classic use : 
cetera, infera, postera, supera. They are rarely found in the singular except 
in certain phrases : as, postero die, the next day. 

Note. — An ablative feminine in -5 is found in a few Greek adjectives: as, lectica 
octophoro (Verr. v. 27). 



48 



DECLENSION OE ADJECTIVES 



[§§ 112, 113 



112. Stems in ro- preceded by a consonant form the Nominative 
Masculine like ager (§47) and are declined as follows: — 

niger, nigra, nigrum, black 





MASCULINE 


FEMININE 


NEUTER 




Stem nigro- 


Stem nigra- 

SlNGULAR 


Stem nigro- 


Nom. 


niger 


nigra 


nigrum 


Gen. 


nigr! 


nigrae 


nigr! 


Dat. 


nigro 


nigrae 


nigro 


Ace. 


nigrum 


nigr am 


nigrum 


Abl. 


nigro 


nigra 
Plural 


nigro 


Nom. 


nigr! 


nigrae 


nigra 


Gen. 


nigrorum 


nigrarum 


nigrorum 


Dat. 


nigr!s 


nigns 


nigns 


Ace. 


nigros 


nigras 


nigra 


Abl. 


nigns 


nigr!s 


nigns 



a. Like niger are declined aeger, ater, creber, faber, glaber, integer, ludicer, 
macer, piger, pulcher, ruber, sacer, scaber, sinister, taeter, vafer ; also the pos- 
sessives noster, vester (§ 145). 

113. The following nine adjectives with their compounds have 

the Genitive Singular in -lus and the Dative in -I in all genders : 

alius (n. aliud), other. totus, whole. alter, -terms, the other. 

nullus, no, none. ullus, any. neuter, -trius, neither. 

solus, alone. unus, one. uter, -trius, which (of two). 

Of these the singular is thus declined : — 





m. 


F. 


N. 


M. 


F. 


N. 


Nom. 


unus 


una 


unum 


uter 


utra 


utrum 


Gen. 


un!us 


iinius 


un!us 


utnus 


utnus 


utnus 


Dat. 


un! 


iin! 


iin! 


utr! 


utr! 


utr! 


Ace. 


unum 


unam 


unum 


utrum 


utram 


utrum 


Abl. 


iino 


una 


iino 


utro 


utra 


utro 


Nom. 


alius 


alia 


aliud 


alter 


altera 


alterum 


Gen. 


alms 


alms 


alms 


alterms 


alterms 


alterms 


Dat. 


ali! 


ali! 


ali! 


alter! 


alter! 


alter! 


Ace. 


alium 


aliam 


aliud 


alterum 


alteram 


alterum 


Abl. 


alio 


alia 


alio 


altero 


altera 


altero 



§§ 113-115] ADJECTIVES OF THE THIRD DECLENSION 



49 



a. The plural of these words is regular, like that of bonus (§ 110). 
&. The genitive in -lus, dative in -l, and neuter in -d are pronominal in 
origin (cf. illius, illi, illud, and § 146). 

c. The i of the genitive ending -lus, though originally long, may be made 
short in verse ; so often in alterius and regularly in utriusque. 

d . Instead of alius, alterius is commonly used, or in the possessive sense 
the adjective alienus, belonging to another, another's. 

e* In compounds — as alteruter — sometimes both parts are declined, 
sometimes only the latter. Thus, alter! utri or alterutri, to one of the two. 

Note. — The regular genitive and dative forms (as in bonus) are sometimes found 
in some of these words: as, genitive and dative feminine, aliae; dative masculine, 
and. Rare forms are alis and alid (for alius, aliud). 



THIRD DECLENSION (CONSONANT AND /-STEMS) 

114. Adjectives of the Third Declension are thus classified: — 

1. Adjectives of Three Terminations in the nominative singular, — one 
for each gender : as, acer, acris, acre. 

2. Adjectives of Two Terminations, — masculine and feminine the same : 
as, levis (m., f.), leve (n.). 

3. Adjectives of One Termination, — the same for all three genders : as, 
atrox. 

a* Adjectives of two and three terminations are true i-stems and hence retain 
in the ablative singular -i, in the neuter plural -ia, in the genitive plural -ium, and 
in the accusative plural regularly -is (see §§73 and 74). 1 

Adjectives of Three and of Two Terminations 

115. Adjectives of Three Terminations are thus declined: — 

acer, acris, acre, keen, Stem acri- 
Singular Plural 



f. 



Nom. 


acer 


acris 


acre 


Gen. 


acris 


acris 


acris 


Dat. 


acri 


acri 


acri 


Ace. 


acrem 


acrem 


acre 


Abl. 


acri 


acri 


acri 



M. 



F. 



N. 



acres acres acria 

acrium acrium acrium 

acribus acribus acribus 

acris (-es) acris (-es) acria 

acribus acribus acribus 



1 But the forms of some are doubtful. 



50 DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES [§§ 115-117 

a* Like acer are declined the following stems in ri- : — 
alacer, campester, celeber, equester, paluster, pedester, puter, saluber, Silvester, 
terrester, volucer. So also names of months in -ber: as, OctSber (cf. 

Note 1. — This formation is comparatively late, and hence, in the poets and in early 
Latin, either the masculine or the feminine form of these adjectives was sometimes 
used for both genders : as, coetus alacris (Enn.). In others, as faenebris, funebris, illus- 
tris, lugubris, mediocris, muiiebris, there is no separate masculine form at all, and these 
are declined like levis (§ 116) . 

Note 2. — Celer, celeris, celere, swift, has the genitive plural celerum, used only as a 
noun, denoting a military rank. The proper name Celer has the ablative in -e. 

116. Adjectives of Two Terminations are thus declined: — 

levis, leve, light, Stem levi- 
Singular Plural 





M., F. 


N. 


Nom. 


levis 


leve 


Gen. 


levis 


levis 


Dat. 


lev! 


levi 


Ace. 


levem 


leve 


Abl. 


levi 


levi 



M., F. 


N. 


leves 


levia 


levium 


levium 


levibus 


levibus 


levis (-es) 


levia 


levibus 


levibus 



Note. — Adjectives of two and three terminations sometimes have an ablative in -e 
in poetry, rarely in prose. 

Adjectives of One Termination 

117. The remaining adjectives of the third declension are Con- 
sonant stems ; but most of them, except Comparatives, have the 
following forms of i-stems : — 1 

-i in the ablative singular (but often -e) ; 

-ia in the nominative and accusative plural neuter ; 

-ium in the genitive plural ; 

-is (as well as -es) in the accusative plural masculine and feminine. 

In the other cases they follow the rule for Consonant stems. 

a. These adjectives, except stems in 1- or r-, form the nominative singu- 
lar from the stem by adding s : as, atrox (stem atroc- + s), egens (stem 
egent- + s). 2 

b* Here be] ong the present participles in -ns (stem nt-) 2 : as, amans, monens. 
They are declined like egens (but cf. § 121). 

1 For details see § 121. 2 Stems in nt- omit t before the nominative -s. 



§§ 118, 119] ADJECTIVES OF THE THIRD DECLENSION 51 

118. Adjectives of one termination are declined as follows : — 



atrox, fierce, Stem atroc- 



egens, needy, Stem egent- 







Singular 








M., F. 


N. 


M., F. 


N. 


Nom. 


atrox 


atrox 


egens 


egens 


Gen. 


atrocis 


atrocis 


egentis 


egentis 


Dat. 


atroci 


atroci 


egenti 


egenti 


Ace. 


atrocem 


atrox 


egentem 


egens 


Abl. 


atroci (-e) 


atroci (-e) 

Plural 


egenti (-e) 


egenti (-e) 


Nom. 


atroces 


atrocia 


egentes 


egentia 


Gen. 


atrocium 


atrocium 


egentium 


egentium 


Dat. 


atrocibus 


atrocibus 


egentibus 


egentibus 


Ace. 


atrocis (-es) 


atrocia 


egentis (-es) 


egentia 


Abl. 


atrocibus 


atrocibus 


egentibus 


egentibus 



119. Other examples are the following: 



Nom. 
Gen. 
Dat. 
Ace. 
Abl. 



Nom. 
Gen. 
Dat. 
Ace. 
Abl. 



concors, harmonious 
Stem concord- 



M., F. 

concors 

concordis 

concord! 

concordem 

concord! 



Concordes 
concordium 
concordibus 
concord!s (-£s) 
concordibus 



N. 



concors 

concordis 

concord! 

concors 

concord! 



Plural 



concordia 

concordium 

concordibus 

concordia 

concordibus 



praeceps, headlong 
Stem praecipit- 



SlNGULAR 



M., F. 

praeceps 

praecipitis 

praecipit! 

praecipitem 

praecipit! 



N. 

praeceps 

praecipitis 

praecipit! 

praeceps 

praecipit! 



praecipites praecipitia 

[praecipitium] 1 
praecipitibus praecipitibus 
praecipitis (-es) praecipitia 
praecipitibus praecipitibus 



1 Given by grammarians, but not found. 



52 



DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES 



[§119 





iens, 


going 


par, 


equal 


dives, 


rich 




Stem eunt- 


Stem par- 


Stem divit- 








SlNGULAR 








M., F. 


N. 


M., F. 


N. 


M., F. 


N. 


Nom. 


iens 


iens 


par 


par 


dives 


dives 


Gen. 


euntis 


euntis 


paris 


paris 


divitis 


divitis 


Dat. 


eunti 


eunti 


pari 


pari 


diviti 


diviti 


Ace. 


euntem 


iens 


parem 


par 


divitem 


dives 


Abl. 


eunte (-1 


) eunte (-1) 


pari 


pari 


divite 


divite 



Nom. euntes euntia 

Gen. euntium euntium 

Dat. euntibus euntibus 

Ace. euntis (-es) euntia 

Abl. euntibus euntibus 



Plural 

pares paria divites [ditia] 

parium parium divitum divitum 

paribus paribus divitibus divitibus 

pans (-es) paria divitis (-es) [ditia] 

paribus paribus divitibus divitibus 





uber, fertile 


vet us, 


old 




Stem uber- 


Stem veter- 






Singular 








M., F. 


■ N. 


M., F. 


N. 


Nom. 


uber 


iiber 


vetus 


vetus 


Gen. 


uberis 


uberis 


veteris 


veteris 


Dat. 


uberi 


uberi 


veteri 


veteri 


Ace. 


uberem 


uber 


veterem 


vetus 


Abl. 


iiberi l 


iiberi x 

Plural 


vetere (-1) 


vetere (-1) 


Nom. 


uberes 


ubera 


veteres 


vetera 


Gen. 


uberum 


uberum 


veterum 


veterum 


Dat. 


iiberibus 


iiberibus 


veteribus 


veteribus 


Ace. 


uberes 


ubera 


veteres 


vetera 


Abl. 


iiberibus 


iiberibus 


veteribus 


veteribus 



Note. — Of these vetus is originally an s-stem. In most s-stems the r has intruded 
itself into the nominative also, as bi-corpor (for fbi-corpos), degener (for fde-genes). 



1 An ablative in -e is very rare. 



§§ 120, 121] 



DECLENSION OF COMPARATIVES 



53 



Declension of Comparatives 
120. Comparatives are declined as follows : — 





melior, 


better 


plus. 


more 




Stem melior- 


for melios- 

SlNGULAR 


Stem plur- 


■ for plus- 




M., F. 


N. 


al., F. 


N. 


Nom. 


melior 


melius 





plus 


Gen. 


melioris 


melioris 




pluris 


Dat. 


meliori 


meliori 





Ace. 


meliorem 


melius 





plus 


Abjl. 


meliore (-1) 


meliore (-i) 
Plural 




plure 


Nom. 


meliores 


meliora 


plures 


plura 


Gen. 


meliorum 


meliorum 


plurium 


plurium 


Dat. 


melioribus 


melioribus 


pluribus 


pluribus 


Ace. 


meliores (-is) 


meliora 


plures (-is) 


plura 


Abl. 


melioribus 


melioribus 


pluribus 


pluribus 



a. All comparatives except plus are declined like melior. 

b. The stem of comparatives properly ended in 6s-; but this became or 
in the nominative masculine and feminine, and or- in all other cases except 
the nominative and accusative singular neuter, where s is retained and 5 is 
changed to ii (cf. hontfr, -oris; corpus, -ons). Thus comparatives appear to 
have two terminations. 

c. The neuter singular plus is used only as a noun. The genitive (rarely 
the ablative) is used only as an expression of value (cf. § 417). The dative 
is not found in classic use. The compound complures, several, has sometimes 
neuter plural compluria. 

Case-Forms of Consonant Stems 

121. In adjectives of Consonant stems — 

a. The Ablative Singular commonly ends in -i, but sometimes -e. 

1. Adjectives used as nouns (as superstes, survivor} have -e. 

2. Participles in -ns used as such (especially in the ablative absolute, 
§419), or as nouns, regularly have -e ; but participles used as adjectives 
have regularly -i : — 

domino imperante, at the master'' s command; ab amante, by a lover ; ab amanti 
muliere, by a loving woman. 



54 DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES [§§ 121, 122 

3. The following have regularly -I : — amens, anceps, concors (and other 
compounds of cor), consors (but as a substantive, -e), degener, hebes, ingens, 
inops, memor (and compounds), par (in prose), perpes, praeceps, praepes, teres. 

4. The following have regularly -e : — caeles, compos, [fdeses], dives, hospes, 
particeps, pauper, princeps, sospes, superstes. So also patrials (see § 71. 5) and 
stems in at-, it-, nt-, rt-, when used as nouns, and sometimes when used as 
adjectives. 

h. The Genitive Plural ends commonly in -ium, but has -um in the 
following : x — 

1. Always in compos, dives, inops, particeps, praepes, princeps, supplex, and 
compounds of nouns which have -um : as, quadru-pes, bi-color. 

2. Sometimes, in poetry, in participles in -ns : as, silentum concilium, a coun- 
cil of the silent shades (Aen. vi. 432). 

c. The Accusative Plural regularly ends in -is, but comparatives com- 
monly have -es. 

d. Vetus (gen. -eris) and pubes (gen. -eris) regularly have -e in the abla- 
tive singular, -a in the nominative and accusative plural, and -um in the 
genitive plural. For uber, see § 119. 

e. A few adjectives of one termination, used as nouns, have a feminine 
form in -a : as, clienta, hospita, with the appellative Iuno Sospita. 

Irregularities and Special Uses of Adjectives 
122. The following special points require notice : — 

a. Several adjectives vary in declension : as, gracilis (-us), hilaris (-us), 
inermis (-us), bicolor (-orus). 

6c A few adjectives are indeclinable : as, damnas, frugi (really a dative 
of service, see § 382. 1. n. 2 ), nequam (originally an adverb), necesse, and the 
pronominal forms tot, quot, aliquot, totidem. Potis is often used as an inde- 
clinable adjective, but sometimes has pote in the neuter. 

c. Several adjectives are defective : as, exspes (only nom.), exlex (exlegem) 
(only nom. and ace. sing.), pernox (pernocte) (only nom. and abl. sing.); 
and primoris, semineci, etc., which lack the nominative singular. 

d. Many adjectives, from their signification, can be used only in the 
masculine and feminine. These may be called adjectives of common gender. 

Such are adulescens, youthful; [fdeses], -idis, slothful; inops, -opis, poor; 
sospes, -itis, safe. Similarly, senex, old man, and iuvenis, young man, are some- 
times called masculine adjectives. 

For Adjectives used as Nouns, see §§ 288, 289; for Nouns used as Adjectives, see 
§ 321. c; for Adjectives used as Adverbs, see § 214; for Adverbs used as Adjectives, 
see § 321. d. 

1 Forms in -um sometimes occur in a few others. 



§§ 123-127] COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES 55 

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES 

123. In Latin, as in English, there are three degrees of com- 
parison : the Positive, the Comparative, and the Superlative, 

124. The Comparative is regularly formed by adding -ior (neu- 
ter -ius), 1 the Superlative by adding -issimus (-a,-um), to the stem of 
the Positive, which loses its final vowel : — 

carus, dear (stem caro-) ; carior, dearer ; carissimus, dearest 

levis, light (stem levi-) ; levior, lighter ; levissimus, lightest 

f ellx, happy (stem f elic-) ; f elicior, happier ; f elicissimus, happiest 

hebes, dull (stem hebet-) ; hebetior, duller ; hebetissimus, dullest. 

Note. — A form of diminutive is made upon the stem of some comparatives: as, 
grandius-culus, a little larger (see § 243). 

a. Participles when used as adjectives are regularly compared : — 
patiens, patient; patientior, patientissimus. 
apertus, open; apertior, apertissimus. 

125. Adjectives in -er form the Superlative by adding -rimus to 

the nominative. The comparative is regular: — 

acer, keen; acrior, acerrimus. 

miser, wretched; miserior, miserrimus. 

a. So vetus (gen. veteris) has superlative veterrimus, from the old form 
veter ; and maturus, besides its regular superlative (maturissimus), has a rare 
form maturrimus. 

For the comparative of vetus, vetustior (from vetustus) is used. 

126. Six adjectives in -lis form the Superlative by adding -limus 
to the stem clipped of its final i-. These are facilis, difficilis, simi- 
lis, dissimilis, gracilis, humilis. 

facilis (stem facili-), easy ; facilior, facillimus. 

127. Compounds in -dicus (saying) and -volus (willing) take in 

their comparison the forms of the corresponding participles dicens 

and volens, which were anciently used as adjectives : — 

maledicus, slanderous ; maledlcentior, maledicentissimus. 
malevolus, spiteful; malevolentior, malevolentissimus. 

1 The comparative suffix (earlier -ios) is akin to the Greek -twv, or the Sanskrit -iyans. 
That of the superlative (-issimus) is a double form of uncertain origin. It appears to 
contain the is- of the old suffix -is-to-s (seen in yd-io-ros and English sweetest) and also 
the old -mo-s (seen in pri-mus, mini-mus, etc.) . The endings -limus and -rimus are formed 
by assimilation (§ 15. 6) from -simus. The comparative and superlative are really new 
stems, and are not strictly to be regarded as forms of inflection. 



56 



COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES 



[§§ 127-130 



a* So, by analogy, compounds in -ficus : — 
magnificus, grand; magnificentior, magnificentissimus. 

128. Some adjectives are compared by means of the adverbs 
magis, more, and maxime, most. 

So especially adjectives in -us preceded by e or i : — 
idoneus,^; magis idoneus, maxime idoneus. 

Note. — But pius has piissimus in the superlative, — - a form condemned by Cicero, 
but common in inscriptions ; equally common, however, is the irregular pientissimus. 

Irregular Comparison 

129. Several adjectives have in their comparison irregular 
forms : — 

melior, better; 
peior, worse; 
maior, greater ; 
minor, less; 
plus (*r.)(§ 120), mc 
phires, more; 
nequior ; 



bonus, good; 

malus, bad; 

magnus, great; 

parvus, small; 

multus, much; 

multi, many ; 

nequam (indecl., § 122. 6), 

worthless ; 
frtigi (indecl., § 122. 6), use- frtigalior; 

ful, worthy ; 
dexter, on the right, handy; dexterior ; 



optimus, best. 
pessimus, worst. 
maximus, greatest. 
minimus, least. 
pliirimus, most. 
plurimi, most. 
nequissimus. 



friigalissimus. 



dextimus. 



Note. — These irregularities arise from the use of different stems (cf . § 127) . Thus 
frugalior and friigalissimus are formed from the stem frugali-, but are used as the com- 
parative and superlative of the indeclinable frugi. 

Defective Comparison 

130. Some Comparatives and Superlatives appear without a 
Positive : — 

ocissimus, swiftest. 
potissimus, most important. 

a* The following are formed from stems not used as adjectives: 2 — 



ocior, swifter; 
potior, preferable ; 1 



1 The old positive potis occurs in the sense of able, possible. 

2 The forms in -tra and -terus were originally comparative (cf. alter), so that the 
comparatives in -terior are double comparatives. Inferus and superus are comparatives 
of a still more primitive form (cf . the English comparative in -er) . 

The superlatives in -timus (-tumus) are relics of old forms of comparison ; those in 
-mus like Imus, summus, primus, are still more primitive. Forms like extrSmus are 
superlatives of a comparative. In fact, comparison has always been treated with an 
accumulation of endings, as children say furtherer and further 'est. 



§§ 130, 131] DEFECTIVE COMPARISON 57 

cis, citra (adv. , on this side) : citerior, hither ; citimus, hithermost. 

de (prep., down): deterior, worse; deterrimus, worst. 

in, intra (prep., in, within): interior, inner ; intimus, inmost. 

prae, pro (prep., before)-. prior, former; primus, first. 

prope (adv., near): propior, nearer; proximus, next. 

ultra (adv. , beyond) : ulterior, farther ; ultimus, farthest. 

h. Of the following the positive forms are rare, except when used as 
nouns (generally in the plural) : — 

exterus, outward; exterior, outer; extremus (extimus), outmost. 

inferus, below (see § 111. b) ; inferior, lower ; infimus (lmus), lowest. 
posterus, following ; posterior, latter; postremus (postumus), last. 

sup erus, above; superior, higher; supremus or summus, highest. 

But the plurals, exteri, foreigners; infer!, the gods below ; poster!, posterity; 
euperi, the heavenly gods, are common. 

Note. — The superlative postumus has the special sense of last-born, and was a well- 
known surname. 

131. Several adjectives lack the Comparative or the Superla- 
tive : — 

a. The Comparative is rare or wanting in the following : — 

bellus, inclutus (or inclitus), novus, 

caesius, invictus, pius, 

falsus, invitus, sacer, 

fidus (with its compounds), meritus, vafer. 

6. The Superlative is wanting in many adjectives in -ilis or -bilis (as, 
agilis, probabilis), and in the following : — 

actuosus exilis prSclivis surdus 

agrestis ingens propinquus taciturnus 

alacer ieiiinus satur tempestivus 

arcanus longinquus segnis teres 

caecus obliquus serus vicinus 

diuturnus opimus supinus 

c. From iuvenis, youth, senex, old man (cf . § 122. d), are formed the com- 
paratives iunior, younger, senior, older. For these, however, minor natu and 
maior natu are sometimes used (natu being often omitted). 

The superlative is regularly expressed by minimus and maximus, with 
or without natu. 

Note. — In these phrases natu is ablative of specification (see § 418). 

d. Many adjectives (as aureus, golden) are from their meaning incapable 
of comparison. 

Note. — But each language has its own usage in this respect. Thus, niger, glossy 
black, and candidus, shining white, are compared ; but not ater or albus, meaning abso- 
lute dead black or white (except that Plautus once has atrior). 



58 NUMERALS [§§ 132, 133 

NUMERALS 

132. The Latin Numerals may be classified as follows : — 

I. Numeral Adjectives : 

1. Cardinal Numbers, answering the question how many? as, unus, one; 
duo, two, etc. 

2. Ordinal Numbers, 1 adjectives derived (in most cases) from the Cardi- 
nals, and answering the question which in order? as, primus, first ; secun- 
dus, second, etc. 

3. Distributive Numerals, answering the question how many at a time f 
as, singuli, one at a time ; bini, two by two, etc. 

II. Numeral Adverbs, answering the question how often f as, semel, 
once; bis, twice, etc. 

Cardinals and Ordinals 

133. These two series are as follows : — 



CARDINAL 


ORDINAL 




ROMAN 


NUMERALS 


1. tinus, una, unum, one 


primus, -a, -urn, first 






I 


2. duo, duae, duo, two 


secundus (alter), second 






II 


3. tres, tria, three 


tertius, third 






III 


4. quattuor 


quartus 






in I or iv 


5. qumque 


qulntus 






V 


6. sex 


sextus 






VI 


7. septem 


septimus 






VII 


8. octo 


octavus 






VIII 


9. novem 


nonus 






vim or ix 


10. decern 


decimus 






X 


11. undecim 


undecimus 






XI 


12. duodecim 


duodecimus 






XII 


13. tredecim (decern (et) tres) 


tertius decimus (decimus 


(et) 


tertius) xin 


14. quattuordecim 


quartus decimus 




xiii i or xiv 


15. quindecim 


qulntus decimus 






XV 


16. sedecim 


sextus decimus 






XVI 


17. septendecim 


septimus decimus 






XVII 


18. duodevlginti (octodecim) 


duodevicensimus (octavus decimus) 


XVIII 



1 The Ordinals (except secundus, tertius, octavus, nonus) are formed by means of suf- 
fixes related to those used in the superlative and in part identical with them. Thus, 
decimus (compare the form Infimus) may be regarded as the last of a series of ten ; pri- 
mus is a superlative of a stem akin to pro ; the forms in -tus (quartus, qulntus, sextus) may 
be compared with the corresponding Greek forms in -ros, and with superlatives in 
-kt-to-s, while the others have the superlative ending -timus (changed to -simus) . Of the 
exceptions, secundus is a participle of sequor ; alter is a comparative form (compare 
-repos in Greek) , and nonus is contracted from f novenos. The cardinal multiples of ten 
are compounds of -gint- 'ten' (a fragment of a derivative from decern) . 



§§ 133, 


134] I 


CARDINA 


LS AND ORDINALS 


59 




CARDINAL 


ORDINAL 


ROMAN NUMERALS 


19. 


tindevigintl (novendecim) undevicensimus(nonus decimus) xviiii or xix 


20. 


vigintl 




vlcensimus (vigensimus) 


XX 


21. 


vigintl unus 




vlcensimus primus 


XXI 




(or unus et 


vigintl, etc 


.) (unus et vlcensimus, etc.) 




30. 


triginta 




tricensimus 


XXX 


40. 


quadraginta 




quadragensimus 


xxx x or xl 


50. 


qumquaginta 




quinquagensimus 


J^ or l 


60. 


sexaginta 




sexagensimus 


LX 


70. 


septuaginta 




septuagensimus 


LXX 


80. 


octoginta 




octogensimus 


LXXX 


90. 


nonaginta 




nonagensimus 


lxxxx or xc 


100. 


centum 




centensimus 


c 


101. 


centum (et) unus, etc. 


centensimus primus, etc. 


CI 


200. 


ducenti, -ae, ■ 


-a 


ducentensimus 


cc 


300. 


trecenti 




trecentensimus 


ccc 


400. 


quadringentl 




quadringentensimus 


cccc 


500. 


quingentl 




qulngentensimus 


D 


600. 


sescenti 




sescentensimus 


DC 


700. 


septingenti 




septingentensimus 


DCC 


800. 


octingenti 




octingentensimus 


DCCC 


900. 


nongentl 




nongentensimus 


DCCCC 


1000. 


mllle 




mlllensimus 


co (cio) or m 


5000. 


quinque milia 


(mlllia) 


quinquiens millensimus 


IOD 


10,000. 


decern milia (mlllia) 


deciens mlllensimus 


CCIOD 


00,000. 


centum milia 


(mlllia) 


centiens mlllensimus 


CCCIOOO 



Note \. — The forms in -ensimus are often written without the n : as, vicesimus, etc. 

Note 2. — The forms octodecim, novendecim are rare, duodeviginti (two from twenty), 
undeviginti (one from twenty), being used instead. So 28, 29; 38, 39; etc. may be 
expressed either by the subtraction of two and one or by the addition of eight and 
nine respectively. 

Declension of Cardinals and Ordinals 

134. Of the Cardinals only unus, duo, tres, the hundreds above 
one hundred, and mllle when used as a noun, are declinable. 

a. For the declension of unus, see § 113. It often has the meaning of 
same or only. The plural is used in this sense ; but also, as a simple nu- 
meral, to agree with a plural noun of a singular meaning : as, una castra, 
one camp (cf . § 137. b). The plural occurs also in the phrase uni et alteri, one 
part?/ and the other (the ones and the others). 

b* Duo, 1 two, and tres, three, are thus declined : — 

1 The form in -o is a remnant of the dual number, which was lost in Latin, but is 
found in cognate languages. So in ambo, both, which preserves -o (cf . 5vu and § 629. b) . 



60 



) 




NUMERALS 




m 


j 134, 135 




M. 


F. 


N. 


M. , F. 




N. 


Nom. 


duo 


duae 


duo 


ties 




tria 


Gen. 


duorum 


duarum 


duorum 


trium 




trium 


Dat. 


duobus 


duabus 


duobus 


tribus 




tribus 


Ace. 


duos (duo) 


duas 


duo 


tres (tris) 




tria 


Abl. 


duobus 


duabus 


duobus 


tribus 




tribus 



Note. — Ambo, both, is declined like duo. 

c. The hundreds, up to 1000, are adjectives of the First and Second 
Declensions, and are regularly declined like the plural of bonus. 

d • Mille, a thousand, is in the singular an indeclinable adjective : — 
mille modis, in a thousand ways. 
cum mille hominibus, with a thousand men. 

mille trahens varios colores (Aen. iv. 701), drawing out a thousand various 
colors. 
In the plural it is used as a neuter noun, and is declined like the plural 
of sedfle (§ 69): milia, milium, milibus, etc. 

Note. — The singular mille is sometimes found as a noun in the nominative and 
accusative : as, mille hominum misit, he sent a thousand (of) men ; in the other cases 
rarely, except in connection with the same case of milia : as, cum octo milibus peditum, 
mille equitum, with eight thousand foot and a thousand horse. 

e. The ordinals are adjectives of the First and Second Declensions, and 
are regularly declined like bonus. 

135. Cardinals and Ordinals have the following uses : — 

a. In numbers below 100, if units precede tens, et is generally inserted : 
duo et viginti ; otherwise et is omitted : viginti duo. 

b. In numbers above 100 the highest denomination generally stands 
first, the next second, etc., as in English. Et is either omitted entirely, or 
stands between the two highest denominations : — mille (et) septingenti 
sexaginta quattuor, 1764. 

Note. — Observe the following combinations of numerals with substantives: — 
unus et viginti milites, or viginti milites (et) unus, 21 soldiers. 
duo milia quingenti milites, or duo milia militum et quingenti, 2500 soldiers. 
milites mille ducenti triginta unus, 1231 soldiers. 

c. After milia the name of the objects enumerated is in the genitive : 
duo milia hominum, two thousand men. 1 

cum tribus milibus militum, xoith three thousand soldiers. 
milia passuum tria, three thousand paces (three miles). 

d. For million, billion^ trillion, etc. ? the Romans had no special words, 
but these numbers were expressed by multiplication (cf. § 138. a). 

1 Or, in poetry, bis mille homines, twice a thousand men. 



§§ 135-137] 



DISTRIBUTIVES 



61 



e* Fractions are expressed, as in English, by cardinals in the numerator 
and ordinals in the denominator. The feminine gender is used to agree 
with pars expressed or understood : — two-sevenths, duae septimae (sc. partes) ; 
three-eighths, tres octavae (sc. partes). 

One-half is dimidia pars or dimidium. 

Note 1. — When the numerator is one, it is omitted and pars is expressed: one- 
third, tertia pars ; one-fourth, quarta pars. 

Note 2. — When the denominator is but one greater than the numerator, the numer- 
ator only is given: two-thirds, duae partes; three-fourths, tres partes, etc. 

Note 3. — Fractions are also expressed by special words derived from as, a pound : 
as, triens, a third; bes, two-thirds. See § 637. 

Distributives 

136. Distributive Numerals are declined like the plural of 
bonus. 



Note. — These answer to 


the interrogative quoteni, how 


many of each? or ho 


many at a time? 












1. singuli, one by one 


18. 


octoni deni or 


duo- 


100. 


centeni 


2. bini, two by two 




deviceni 




200. 


ducenl 


3. term, trini 


19. 


noveni deni or un- 


300. 


treceni 


4. quaterni 




deviceni 




400. 


quadringeni 


5. quini 


20. 


viceni 




500. 


quingeni 


6. sen! 


21. 


viceni singuli, 


etc. 


600. 


sesceni 


7. septeni 


30. 


triceni 




700. 


septingeni 


8. octoni 


40. 


quadrageni 




800. 


octingeni 


9. noveni 


50. 


quinquageni 




900. 


nongeni 


10. deni 


60. 


sexageni 




1000. 


mill em 


11. undeni 


70. 


septuageni 




2000. 


bina milia 


12. duodeni 


80. 


octogeni 




10,000. 


dena milia 


13. term deni, etc. 


90. 


nonageni 




100,000. 


centena milia 



137. Distributives are used as follows : — 

a. In the sense of so many apiece or on each side : as, singula singulis, one 
apiece (one each to each one) ; agri septena iugera plebi divisa sunt, i.e. seven 
jugera to each citizen (seven jugera each), etc. 

b. Instead of cardinals, to express simple number, when a nonn plural in 
form but usually singular in meaning is used in a plural sense : as, bina 
castra, two camps (duo castra would mean two forts). With such nouns trini, 
not terni, is used for three : as, trina (not terna) castra, three camps ; terna 
castra means camps in threes. 

c. In multiplication : as, bis bina, twice two ; ter septenis diebus, in thrice 
seven days. 

d. By the poets instead of cardinal numbers, particularly where pairs or 
sets are spoken of: as, bina hastilia, two shafts (two in a set). 



62 



NUMERALS 



[§§ 138, 139 



Numeral Adverbs 



138. The Numeral Adverbs answer the question quotiens 
(quoties), how many times? how often? 



1. semel, once 

2. bis, twice 

3. ter, thrice 

4. quater 

5. qulnquiens (-es) 1 

6. sexiens 

7. septiens 

8. octiens 

9. noviens 

10. deciens 

11. undeciens 



12. duodeciens 

13. terdeciens 

14. quaterdeciens 

15. qumdeciens 

16. sedeciens 

17. septiesdeciens 

18. duodevlciens 

19. tindevlciens 

20. vlciens 

21. semel viciens, 2 etc. 
30. triciens 



40. quadragiens 
50. quinquagiens 
60. sexagiens 
70. septuagiens 
80. octogiens 
90. nonagiens 
100. centiens 
200. ducentiens 
300. trecentiens 
1000. miliens 
10,000. deciens miliens 



a* Numeral Adverbs are used with mflle to express the higher numbers : 

ter et triciens (centena milia) sestertium, 3,300,000 sesterces (three and thirty 

times a hundred thousand sesterces). 
vicies ac septies milies (centena milia) sestertium, 2,700,000,000 sesterces 

(twenty-seven thousand times a hundred thousand). 

Note. — These large numbers are used almost exclusively in reckoning money, 
and centena milia is regularly omitted (see § 634) . 

Other Numerals 
139. The following adjectives are called Multiplicatives : — 

simplex, single; duplex, double, twofold ; triplex, triple, threefold; quadruplex, 
quinquiplex, septemplex, decemplex, centuplex, sesquiplex (1^), multiplex 
(manifold). 

a. Proportionals are : duplus, triplus, quadruplus, octupius, etc., twice as 
great, thrice as great, etc. 

b. Temporals : bimus, trimus, of two or three years 9 age ; biennis, triennis, 
lasting two or three years ; bimestris, trimestris, of two or three months ; biduum, 
a period of two days; biennium, a period of two years. 

c. Partitives : binarius, ternarius, of two or three parts. 

d. Other derivatives are: iinio, unity; binio, the two (of dice); primanus, 
of the first legion; prlmarius, of the first rank; denarius, a sum of 10 asses; 
binus (distributive), double, etc. 



1 Forms in -ns are often written without the n. 

2 Also written vlciens et semel or viciens semel, etc. 



§§140-143] PERSONAL PRONOUNS 63 



PKONOUNS 

140. Pronouns are used as Nouns or as Adjectives. They are 
divided into the following seven classes : — 

1. Personal Pronouns : as, ego, i". 

2. Reflexive Pronouns : as, se, himself, 

3. Possessive Pronouns : as, meus, my. 

4. Demonstrative Pronouns: as, hie, this; ille, that. 

5. Relative Pronouns : as, qui, who. . 

6. Interrogative Pronouns : as, quis, who ? 

7. Indefinite Pronouns : as, aliquis, some one. 

141. Pronouns have special forms of declension. 

Note. — These special forms are, in general, survivals of a very ancient form of 
declension differing from that of nouns. 

Personal Pronouns 

142. The Personal pronouns of the first person are ego, i", nos, 
we; of the second person, tu, thou or you, vos, ye or you. The 
personal pronouns of the third person — he, she, it, they — are 
wanting in Latin, a demonstrative being sometimes used instead. 

143. Ego and tu are declined as follows : — 





First 


Person 






Singular 


Plural 




Nom. 


ego, / 


nos, ice 




Gen. 


mei, of me 


nostrum, nostri, 


of us 


Dat. 


mihi (mi), to me 


nobis, to us 




Ace. 


me, me 


nos, us 




Abl. 


me, by me 


nobis, by us 






Second 


Person 




Nom. 


tu, thou or you 


vos, ye or you 




Gen. 


tui, of thee or you 


vestrum, vestri ; 


vostrum (-tri) 


Dat. 


tibi 


vobis 




Ace. 


te 


vos 




Abl. 


te 


vobis 





a. The plural nos is often used for the singular ego ; the plural v5s is 
never so used for the singular tu. 



64 PRONOUNS [§§ 143, 144 

Note. — Old forms are genitive mis, tis; accusative and ablative med, ted (cf. 
§43. n. 1). 

b. The forms nostrum, vestrum, etc., are used partitively : — - 
unusquisque nostrum, each one of us. 

vestrum omnium, of all of you. 

Note. — The forms of the genitive of the personal pronouns are really the genitives 
of the possessives: mei, tui, sui, nostri, vestri, genitive singular neuter: nostrum, ves- 
trum, genitive plural masculine or neuter. So in early and later Latin we find una 
vestrarum, one of you {women) . 

c. The genitives mei, tui, sui, nostri, vestri, are chiefly used objectively 
(§347):- 

memor sis nostri, be mindful of us (me). 
me tui pudet, I am ashamed of you. 

d. Emphatic forms of tu are tute and tutemet (tutimet). The other 
cases of the personal pronouns, excepting the genitive plural, are made 
emphatic by adding -met : as, egomet, vosmet. 

Note. — Early emphatic forms are mepte and tepte. 

e. Reduplicated forms are found in the accusative and ablative singu- 
lar : as, meme, tete. 

/. The preposition cum, with, is joined enclitically with the ablative : as, 
tecum loquitur, he talks with you. 

Reflexive Pronouns 

144. Reflexive Pronouns are used in the Oblique Cases to refer 
to the subject of the sentence or clause in which they stand (see 
§ 299): as, se amat, he loves himself. 

a. In the first and second persons the oblique cases of the Personal pro- 
nouns are used as Reflexives : as, me video, / see myself; te laudas, you 
praise yourself; nobis persuademus, we persuade ourselves. 

h. The Reflexive pronoun of the third person has a special form used 
only in this sense, the same for both singular and plural. It is thus 
declined : — 

Gen. sui, of himself herself itself themselves 
Dat. sibi, to himself herself itself themselves 
Ace. se (sese), himself herself itself themselves 
Abl. se (sese), [by'] himself herself itself themselves 

Note 1. — Emphatic and reduplicated forms of se are made as in the personals (see 
§ 143. d, e) . The preposition cum is added enclitically : as, s6cum, with himself, etc. 
Note 2. — An old form sgd occurs in the accusative and ablative. 



§§ 145, 146] 



DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS 



65 



Second Person. 
Third Person. 



Possessive Pronouns 

145. The Possessive pronouns are : — 
First Person. meus, my noster, our 

tuus, thy, your vester, your 

suus, his, her, its suus, their 

These are really adjectives of the First and Second Declensions, and are 
so declined (see §§ 110-112). But meus has regularly mi (rarely meus) in 
the vocative singular masculine. 

Note. — Suus is used only as a reflexive, referring to the subject. For a possessive 
pronoun of the third person not referring to the subject, the genitive of a demonstrative 
must be used. Thus, patrem suum occidit, he killed his (own) father ; but patrem eius 
occidit, he killed his (somebody else's) father. 

a. Emphatic forms in -pte are found in the ablative singular : suopte. 

b. A rare possessive cuius (quoius), -a, -um, ivhose, is formed from the 
genitive singular of the relative or interrogative pronoun (qui, quis). It 
may be either interrogative or relative in force according to its derivation, 
but is usually the former. 

c. The reciprocals one another and each other are expressed by inter se or 
alter . . . alterum : — 

alter alterius 5va frangit, they break each other's eggs (one ... of the other), 
inter se amant, they love one another (they love among themselves). 

Demonstrative Pronouns 

146. The Demonstrative Pronouns are used to point out or 

designate a person or thing for special attention, either with nouns 

as Adjectives or alone as Pronouns. They are:— hie, this; is, 

ille, iste, that; with the Intensive ipse, self, and idem, same; 1 and 

are thus declined : — - 

hie, this 
Singular Plural 





M. 


F. 


N. 


M. 


F. 


N. 


Nom. 


hie 


haec 


hoc 


hi 


hae 


haec 


Gen. 


huius 


huius 


huius 


hdrum 


harum 


h5rum 


Dat. 


huic 


huic 


huic 


his 


his 


his 


Ace. 


nunc 


hanc 


hoc 


hos 


has 


haec 


Abl. 


hoc 


hac 


hoc 


his 


his 


his 



1 These demonstratives are combinations of o- and i- stems, which are not clearly 
distinguishable. 



66 



PRONOUNS 



[§146 



Note 1. — Hie is a compound of the stem ho- with the demonstrative enclitic -ce. 
In most of the cases final e is dropped, in some the whole termination. But in these 
latter it is sometimes retained for emphasis : as, huius-ce, hls-ce . In early Latin -c alone 
is retained in some of these (horunc). The vowel in hie, hoc, was originally short, and 
perhaps this quantity was always retained. Ille and iste are sometimes found with 
the same enclitic: illic, illaec, illuc; also illoc. See a, p. 67. 

Note 2. — For the dative and ablative plural of hie the old form hibus is sometimes 
found ; haec occurs (rarely) for hae. 

is, that v 





Singular 




Plural 






m. 


F. 


N. 


M. 


f. 


N. 


Nom. 


is 


ea 


id 


ei, ii (i) 


eae 


ea 


Gen. 


eius 


eius 


eius 


eorum 


earum 


eorum 


Dat. 


el 


el 


ei 


eis, iis (is) 


eis, iis (is) 


eis, iis (Is) 


Ace. 


eum 


earn 


id 


eos 


eas 


ea 


Abl. 


eo 


ea 


eo 


els, iis (is) 


eis, iis (Is) 


eis, iis (Is) 



Note 3. — Obsolete forms are eae (dat. fern.), and eabus or idus (dat. plur.). For 
dative ei are found also ei and ei (monosyllabic); ei, ebs, etc., also occur in the plural. 

ille, that 







Singular 






Plural 






M. 


F. 


N. 


M. 


f. 


N. 


Nom. 


ille 


ilia 


illud 


illl 


illae 


ilia 


Gen. 


illius 


illius 


illius 


illorum 


illarum 


illorum 


Dat. 


ill! 


illl 


illl 


illls 


illis 


illis 


Ace. 


ilium 


illam 


illud 


illos 


illas 


ilia 


Abl. 


ill5 


ilia 


illo 


mis 


illis 


illis 



Iste, ista, istud, that (yonder), is declined like ille. 

Note 4. — Ille replaces an earlier ollus (olle), of which several forms occur. 

Note 5. — Iste is sometimes found in early writers in the form ste etc. The first 
syllable of ille and ipse is very often used as short in early poetry. 

Note 6. — The forms illi, isti (gen.), and illae, istae (dat.), are sometimes found; 
also the nominative plural istaece, illaece (for istae, illae). See a, p. 67. 



Singular 



ipse, self 



M. F. N. 

Nom. ipse ipsa ipsum 

Gen. ipslus ipsius ipslus 

Dat. ipsl ipsi ipsi 

Ace. ipsum ipsam ipsum 

Abl. ipso ipsa ipso 



Plural 



M. F. N. 

ipsi ipsae ipsa 

ipsorum ipsarum ipsorum 

ipsls ipsls ipsls 

ipsos ipsas ipsa 

ipsls ipsls ipsls 



§146] 



DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS 



67 



Note 7. — Ipse is compounded of is and -pse (a pronominal particle of uncertain 
origin: cf. §145. a), meaning self. The former part was originally declined, as in 
reapse (for re eapse), m fact. An old form ipsus occurs, with superlative ipsissimus, 
own self used for comic effect. 

Note 8. — The intensive -pse is found in the forms eapse (nominative), eumpse, 
eampse, eopse, eapse (ablative). 



idem, the same 



Singular 



Plural 



m. 
idem 



F. 

eadem 



N. 

idem 



Nom. 

Gen. eiusdem eiusdem eiusdem 

Dat. eidem eidem eidem 

Ace. eundem eandem idem 

Abl. eodem eadem eodem 



M. f. n. 

idem (ei-) eaedem eadem 
eorundem earundem eorundem 

eisdem or isdem 
eosdem easdem eadem 

eisdem or isdem 



Note 9. — idem is the demonstrative is with the indeclinable suffix -dem. The mas- 
culine idem is for f isdem ; the neuter idem, however, is not for f iddem, but is a relic of 
an older formation. A final m of is is changed to n before d : as, eundem for eumdem, 
etc. The plural forms idem, isdem, are often written iidem, iisdem. 

a, Ille and iste appear in combination with the demonstrative particle -c, 
shortened from -ce, in the following forms : — 







Singular 




M. F. 


N. 


Nom. 


illic illaec 


illuc (illoc) 


Acc. 


illunc illanc 


illuc (illoc) 


Abl. 


illoc iliac 


illoc 



istic istaec istuc (istoc) 
istunc istanc istuc (istoc) 
istSc istac istoc 



N., Acc. 



Plural 



illaec 



istaec 



Note 1. — The appended -ce is also found with pronouns in numerous combinations : 
as, huiusce, hunce, horunce, harunce, hosce, hisce (cf . § 146. n. 1), illiusce, isce ; also with the 
interrogative -ne, in hScine, hoscine, istucine, ilHcine, etc. 

Note 2. — By composition with ecce or em, behold! are formed eccum (for ecce 
eum), eccam, eccos, eccas; eccillum (for ecce ilium); ellum (for em ilium), ellam, elles, 
ellas ; eccistam. These forms are dramatic and colloquial. 



b. The combinations huiusmodi (huiuscemodi), eiusmodi, etc., are used as 
indeclinable adjectives, equivalent to talis, such: as, res eiusmodi, such a 
thing (a thing of that sort : cf. § 345. a). 

For uses of the Demonstrative Pronouns, see §§ 296 ff. 



68 



PRONOUNS 



[§§ 147-149 



Relative Pronouns 
147. The Relative Pronoun qui, who, which, is thus declined : 







Singular 






Plural 






m. 


f. 


N. 


M. 


f. 


N. 


Nom. 


qui 


quae 


quod 


qui 


quae 


quae 


Gen. 


cuius 


cuius 


cuius 


quorum 


quarum 


quorum 


Dat. 


cui 


cui 


cui 


quibus 


quibus 


quibus 


Ace. 


quern 


quam 


quod 


quos 


quas 


quae 


Abl. 


quo 


qua 


quo 


quibus 


quibus 


quibus 



Interrogative and Indefinite Pronouns 

148. The Substantive Interrogative Pronoun quis, ivho? quid, 
wKat? is declined in the Singular as follows : — 





M., F. 


N. 


Nom. 


quis 


quid 


Gen. 


cuius 


cuius 


Dat. 


cui 


cui 


Ace. 


quern 


quid 


Abl. 


qu5 


quo 



The Plural is the same as that of the Relative, qui, quae, quae. 

a. The singular quis is either masculine or of indeterminate gender, 
but in old writers it is sometimes distinctly feminine. 

b. The Adjective Interrogative Pronoun, qui, quae, quod, what kind off, 
what ? which ? is declined throughout like the Relative : — 

Substantive Adjective 

quis vocat, who calls ? qui homo vocat, what man calls f 

quid vides, what do you see f quod templum vides, what temple do you see f 

Note. — But qui is often used without any apparent adjective force; and quis is 
very common as an adjective, especially with words denoting a person: as, qui nomi- 
nat me ? who calls my name ? quis dies fuit ? what day was it ? quis homo ? what man f 
but often qui homo ? what kind of man f nescio qui sis, I know 7iot who you are. 



c, Quisnam, pray, who f is an emphatic interrogative, 
stantive and adjective forms like quis, qui. 



It has both sub- 



149. The Indefinite Pronouns quis, any one, and qui, any, are 
declined like the corresponding Interrogatives, but qua is com- 
monly used for quae except in the nominative plural feminine : — 



§§ 149-151] COMPOUNDS OF QUIS AND QUI 69 

Substantive : quis, any one • quid, anything. 

Adjective : qui, qua (quae), quod, any. 

a. The feminine forms qua and quae are sometimes used substantively. 

b. The indefinites quis and qui are rare except after si, nisi, ne, and num, 
and in compounds (see § 310. a, b). 

Note. — After these particles qui is often used as a substantive and quis as an adjec- 
tive (cf. §148. b. N.). 

Case-Forms of qui and quis 

150. The Relative, Interrogative, and Indefinite Pronouns are 
originally of the same stem, and most of the forms are the same 
(compare § 147 with § 148). The stem has two forms in the mas- 
culine and neuter, quo-, qui-, and one for the feminine, qua-. The 
interrogative sense is doubtless the original one. 

a. Old forms for the genitive and dative singular are quoius, quoi. 

b. The form qui is used for the ablative of both numbers and all genders ; 
but especially as an adverb (how, by which way, in any ivay), and in the combi- 
nation quicum, with whom, as an interrogative or an indefinite relative. 

c. A nominative plural ques (stem qui-) is found in early Latin. A dative 
and ablative quis (stem quo-) is not infrequent, even in classic Latin. 

d. The preposition cum is joined enclitically to all forms of the abla- 
tive, as with the personal pronouns (§ 143./) : as, quocum, quicum, quibuscum. 

Note. — But occasionally cum precedes: as, cum quo (Iuv. iv. 9). 

Compounds of quis and qui 

151. The pronouns quis and qui appear in various combinations. 

a. The adverb -cumque (-cunque) (cf. quisque) added to the relative 
makes an indefinite relative, which is declined like the simple word : as, 
quicumque, quaecumque, quodcumque, whoever, whatever; cuiuscumque, etc. 

Note. — This suffix, with the same meaning, may be used with any relative: as, 
qualiccumque, of whatever sort ; quanddcumque (also rarely quandoque), whenever; ubi- 
cumque, wherever. 

b* In quisquis, whoever, both parts are declined, but the only forms in 
common use are quisquis, quidquid (quicquid) and quoquo. 

Note 1. — Rare forms are quemquem and quibusquibus ; an ablative quiqui is some- 
times found in early Latin ; the ablative feminine quaqua is both late and jare. Cuicui 
occurs as a genitive in the phrase cuicui modi, of whatever kind. Other cases are 
cited, but have no authority. In early Latin quisquis is occasionally feminine. 

Note 2. — Quisquis is usually .substantive, except in the ablative quequo, which is 
more commonly an adjective. 



70 



PRONOUNS 



[§151 



c. The indefinite pronouns quidam, a certain (one) ; quivis, quilibet, any 
you please, are used both as substantives and as adjectives. The first part 
is declined like the relative qui, but the neuter has both quid- (substantive) 
and quod- (adjective) : — 

quidam quaedam quiddam (quoddam) 

quivis quaevis quidvis (quodvis) 

Quidam changes m to n before d in the accusative singular (quendam, m.; 

quandam, f.) and the genitive plural (quorundam, m., n.; quarundam, f.). 

d. The indefinite pronouns quispiam, some, any, and quisquam, any at all, 
are used both as substantives and as adjectives. Quispiam has feminine quae- 
piam (adjective), neuter quidpiam (substantive) and quodpiam (adjective); 
the plural is very rare. Quisquam is both masculine and feminine ; the 
neuter is quidquam (quicquam), substantive only ; there is no plural. Ullus, 
-a, -um, is commonly used as the adjective corresponding to quisquam. 

e. The indefinite pronoun aliquis (substantive), some one, aliqui (adjec- 
tive), some, is declined like quis and qui, but aliqua is used instead of aliquae 
except in the nominative plural feminine : — 







Singular 






m. 


f. 


N. 


Nom. 

Gen. 


aliquis (aliqui) 
alicuius 


aliqua 
alicuius 


aliquid (aliquod) 
alicuius 


Dat. 


alicui 


alicui 


alicui 


Ace. 
Abl. 


aliquem 
aliqud 


aliquam 
aliqua 

Plural 


aliquid (aliquod) 
aliqud 


Nom. 
Gen. 
Dat. 
Ace. 
Abl. 


aliqui 

aliquorum 

aliquibus 

aliqu5s 

aliquibus 


aliquae 

aliquarum 

aliquibus 

aliquas 

aliquibus 


aliqua 

aliquorum 

aliquibus 

aliqua 

aliquibus 



Note.— Aliqui is sometimes used substantively and aliquis as an adjective. 

/. The indefinite pronoun ecquis (substantive), whether any one, ecqui 
(adjective), whether any, is declined like aliquis, but has either ecquae or 
ecqua in the nominative singular feminine of the adjective form. 

Note.— Ecquis (ecqui) has no genitive singular, and in the plural occurs in the 
nominative and accusative only. 

g. The enclitic particle -que added to the interrogative gives a universal : 
as, quisque, every one; uterque, each of two, or both. Quisque is declined 



§§ 151, 152] 



CORRELATIVES 



71 



like the interrogative quis, qui : — substantive, quisque, quidque ; adjective, 
quique, quaeque, quodque. 

In the compound unusquisque, every single one, both parts are declined 
(genitive uniuscuiusque), and they are sometimes written separately and even 
separated by other words : — 

ne in uno quidem quoque (Lael. 92), not even in a single one. 

h* The relative and interrogative have rarely a possessive adjective 
cuius (-a, -urn), older quoius, whose ; and a patrial cuias (cuiat-), of what 
country. 

i. Quantus, how great, qualis, of what sort, are derivative adjectives from 
the interrogative. They are either interrogative or relative, corresponding 
respectively to the demonstratives tantus, talis (§ 152). Indefinite com- 
pounds are quantuscumque and qualiscumque (see § 151. a). 

Correlatives 

152. Many Pronouns, Pronominal Adjectives, and Adverbs 
have corresponding demonstrative, relative, interrogative, and 
indefinite forms. Such parallel forms are called Correlatives. 
They are shown in the following table : — 



Demon. 


Rel. 


Interrog. 


Indef. Rel. 


Indef. 


is 


qui 


quis ? 


quisquis 


aliquis 


that 


who 


who f 


whoever 


some one 


tantus 


quantus 


quantus ? 


quantuscumque 


aliquant us 


so great 


how (as) great 


how great ? 


however great 


some 


talis 


qualis 


qualis ? 


qualiscumque 





such 


as 


of what sort f 


of whatever kind 




ibi 


ubi 


ubi? 


ubiubi 


alicubi 


there 


where 


where f 


wherever 


somewhere 


e5 


quo 


quo? 


quoqu5 


aliqu5 


thither 


whither 


whither ? 


whithersoever 


(to) somewhere 


ea 


qua 


qua? 


quaqua 


aliqua. 


that way 


which way 


which way ? 


whithersoever 


somewhere 


inde 


unde 


unde ? 


undecumque 


alicunde 


thence 


whence 


whence ? 


whencesoever 


from somewhere 


turn 


cum 


quando ? 


quandocumque 


aliquando 


then 


when 


when? 


whenever 


at some time 


tot 


quot 


quot? 


quotquot 


aliquot 


so many 


as 


how many f 


however many 


some, several 


totiens 


quotiens 


quotiens ? 


quotienscumque 


aliquotiens 


so often 


as 


how often f 


however often 


at several times 



72 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB [§§ 153-156 

VEEBS 
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB 

153. The inflection of the Verb is called its Conjugation. 

Voice, Mood, Tense, Person, Number 

154. Through its conjugation the Verb expresses Voice, Mood, 
Tense, Person, and Number. 

a. The Voices are two : Active and Passive. 

b* The Moods are four : Indicative, Subjunctive, Imperative, and In- 
finitive. 1 

Note. — The Indicative, Subjunctive, and Imperative are called Finite Moods in 
distinction from the Infinitive. 

c. The Tenses are six, viz.: — 

1. For continued action, Present, Imperfect, Future. 

2. For completed action, Perfect, Pluperfect, Future Perfect. 

The Indicative Mood has all six tenses, but the Subjunctive has no 
future or future perfect, and the Imperative has only the present and the 
future. The Infinitive has the present, perfect, and future. 

d» The Persons are three: First, Second, and Third. 

e. The Numbers are two : Singular and Plural. 

Noun and Adjective Forms 

155. The following Noun and Adjective forms are also included 
in the inflection of the Latin Verb : — 

a. Four Participles, 2 viz. : — 

Active: the Present and Future Participles. 
Passive : the Perfect Participle and the Gerundive. 3 

b. The Gerund : this is in form a neuter noun of the second declension, 
used only in the oblique cases of the singular. 

C* The Supine : this is in form a verbal noun of the fourth declension 
in the accusative (-um) and dative or ablative (-u) 4 singular. 

1 The Infinitive is strictly the locative case of an abstract noun, expressing the 
action of the verb (§ 451) . 

2 The Participles are adjectives in inflection and meaning, but have the power of 
verbs in construction and in distinguishing time. 

3 The Gerundive is also used as an adjective of necessity, duty, etc. (§ 158. d). In 
late use it became a Future Passive Participle. ' 4 Originally locative. 



§§ 156, 157] voices and moods 73 

Signification of the Forms of the Verb 
Voices 

156. The Active and Passive Voices in Latin generally cor- 
respond to the active and passive in English ; but — 

a. The passive voice often has a reflexive meaning : — 

ferrd accingor, I gird myself with my sword, 
Turnus vertitur, Turnus turns (himself), 
induitur vestem, he puts on his (own) clothes. 

Note. — This use corresponds very nearly to the Greek Middle voice, and is doubt- 
less a survival of the original meaning of the passive (p. 76, footnote 2). 

b. Many verbs are passive in form, but active or reflexive in meaning. 
These are called Deponents (§ 190): 1 as, hortor, / exhort; sequor, I follow. 

c. Some verbs with active meaning have the passive form in the perfect 
tenses ; these are called Semi-Deponents : as, audeo, audere, ausus sum, dare. 

Moods 

157. The Moods are used as follows : — 

a. The Indicative Mood is used for most direct assertions and interroga- 
tions: as, — valesne? valeo, are you well? I am well. 

b, The Subjunctive Mood has many idiomatic uses, as in commands, condi- 
tions, and various dependent clauses. It is often translated by the English 
Indicative; frequently by means of the auxiliaries may, might, would, should; 2 
sometimes by the (rare) Subjunctive ; sometimes by the Infinitive ; and 
often by the Imperative, especially in prohibitions. A few characteristic 
examples of its use are the following : — 

eamus, let us go ; ne abeat, let him not depart. 

adsum ut videam, I am here to see (that I may see). 

tu ne quaesieris, do not thou inquire. 

beatus sis, may you be blessed. 

quid morer, ivhy should I delay ? 

nescio quid scribam, I know not what to write. 

si moneam, audiat, if I should warn, he would hear. 

1 That is, verbs which have laid aside (deponere) the passive meaning. 

2 The Latin uses the subjunctive in many cases where we use the indicative; and 
we use a colorless auxiliary in many cases where the Latin employs a separate verb 
with more definite meaning. Thus, I may write is often not scribam (subjunctive), but 
licet mihi scribere ; I can write is possum scribere ; I would write is scribam, scriberem, 
or scribere velim (vcllem) ; Ishoiddiorite, (if, etc.), scriberem (si) . . ., or (implying duty) 
oportet me scribere. 



74 CONJUGATION OE THE VERB [§§ 157, 158 

c. The Imperative is used for exhortation, entreaty, or command ; but the 
Subjunctive is often used instead (§§ 439, 450) : — 

liber esto, he shall be free. 

ne ossa legitd, do not gather the bones. 

d. The Infinitive is used chiefly as an indeclinable noun, as the subject 
or complement of another verb (§§ 452, 456. n.). In special constructions it 
takes the place of the Indicative, and may be translated by that mood in 
English (see Indirect Discourse, § 580 ff.). 

Note. — For the Syntax of the Moods, see § 436 ff. 

Participles 
158. The Participles are used as follows : — 

a. The Present Participle (ending in -ns) has commonly the same 
meaning and use as the English participle in -ing ; as, vocans, call- 
ing ; legentes, reading. (Por its inflection, see egens, § 118.) 

h. The Puture Participle (ending in -urus) is oftenest used to ex- 
press what is likely or about to happen: as, recturus, about to rule; 
audlturus, about to hear. 

Note. — With the tenses of esse, to be, it forms the First Periphrastic Conjugation 
(see § 195) : as, urbs est casura, the city is about to fall ; mansurus eram, I was going 
to stay. 

c. The Perfect Participle (ending in -tus, -sus) has two uses : — 

1. It is sometimes equivalent to the English perfect passive participle : 
as, tectus, sheltered ; acceptus, accepted ; ictus, having been struck ; and often 
has simply an adjective meaning : as, acceptus, acceptable. 

2. It is used with the verb to be (esse) to form certain tenses of the pas 
sive : as, vocatus est, he ivas (has been) called. 

Note. — There is no Perfect Active or Present Passive Participle in Latin. For 
substitutes see §§ 492, 493. 

d. The Gerundive (ending in -ndus), has two uses : — 

1. It is often used as an adjective implying obligation, necessity, or 
propriety (ought or must) : as, audiendus est, he must be heard. 

Note. — When thus used with the tenses of the verb to be (esse) it forms the Second 
Periphrastic Conjugation: deligendus erat, he ought to have been chosen (§ 196). 

2. In the oblique cases the Gerundive commonly has the same meaning 
as the Gerund (cf. § 159. a), though its construction is different. (For 
examples, see § 503 ff.) 



§§ 159-162] TENSES OF THE FINITE VERB 75 

Gerund and Supine 

159. The Gerund and Supine are used as follows : — - 

a. The Gerund is a verbal noun, corresponding in meaning to the English 
verbal noun in -ing (§ 502): as, loquendi causa, for the sake of speaking. 

Note. — The Gerund is found only in the oblique cases. A corresponding nomi- 
native is supplied by the Infinitive : thus, scribere est utile, writing (to write) is use- 
ful ; but, ars scribendi, the art of writing. 

b. The Supine is in form a noun of the fourth declension (§ 94. 6), 
found only in the accusative ending in -turn, -sum, and the dative or abla- 
tive ending in -tu, -su. 

The Supine in -urn is used after verbs and the Supine in -u after adjec- 
tives (§§509, 510): — 

venit spectatum, he came to see; mirabile dictu, wonderful to tell. 

Tenses of the Finite Verb 

160. The Tenses of the Indicative have, in general, the same 
meaning as the corresponding tenses in English : — 

a. Of continued action, 

1. Present : scribo, I write, I am ivriting, I do write. 

2. Imperfect : scribebam, I wrote, I was writing, I did write. 

3. Future : scribam, I shall write. 

&. Of completed action, 

4. Perfect : scrips!, I have written, I wrote. 

5. Pluperfect : scripseram, I had written. 

6. Future Perfect : scripsero, I shall have written. 

161. The Perfect Indicative has two separate uses, — the Per- 
fect Definite and the Perfect Historical (or Indefinite). 

1. The Perfect Definite represents the action of the verb as completed 
in present time, and corresponds to the English perfect with have : as, 
scrips!, / have written. 

2. The Perfect Historical narrates a simple act or state in past time 
without representing it as in progress or continuing. It corresponds to the 
English past or preterite and the Greek aorist: as, scripsit, he wrote. 

162. The Tenses of the Subjunctive are chiefly used in depend- 
ent clauses, following the rule for the Sequence of Tenses ; but 
have also special idiomatic uses (see Syntax). 

For the use of Tenses in the Imperative, see §§ 448, 449. 



76 



CONJUGATION OF THE VERB 



[§163 



Personal Endings 

163. Verbs have regular terminations 1 for each of the three 
Persons, both singular and plural, active and passive. 2 These are : 



ACTIVE 

1. -m(-6): am-6, / love, 

2. -s : ama-s, thou lovest. 

3. -t : ama-t, he loves. 



1. -mus : ama-mus, we love. 

2. -tis: ama-tis, you love. 

3. -nt : ama-nt, they love. 



Singular 



PASSIVE 



-r (-or) : amo-r, I am loved. 
-ris (-re): ama-ris, thou art loved. 
-tur : ama-tur, he is loved. 



Plural 



-mur : ama-mur, we are loved. 

-mini : ama-mini, you are loved, 

-ntur : ama-ntur, they are loved. 



a* The Perfect Indicative active has the special terminations 3 : - 



Sing. 



Plur. 



1. 


-i : 


amav-i, I loved. 


2. 


-is-ti : 


amav-is-ti, thou lovedst. 


3. 


-i-t : 


amav-i-t, he loved. 


1. 


-i-mus : 


amav-i~mus, we loved. 


2. 


-is-tis : 


amav-is-tis, you loved. 


3. 


-erunt (-ere) : 


amav-erunt (-ere), they loved. 



b. The Imperative has the following terminations : — 
Present Active 







Singular 




Plural 


2. 




ama, love thou. 

Future 


-te: 
Active 


ama-te, love ye. 


2. 


-to: 


ama-td, thou shalt love. 


-tote : 


ama-t5te, ye shi 


3. 


-to: 


ama-to, he shall love. 


-ntd : 


ama-nt5, they s> 



1 Most of these seem to be fragments of old pronouns, whose signification is thus 
added to that of the verb-stem (cf . § 36) . But the ending -mini in the second person 
plural of the passive is perhaps a remnant of the participial form found in the Greek 
-fievos, and has supplanted the proper form, which does not appear in Latin. The per- 
sonal ending -nt is probably connected with the participial nt- (nominative -ns) . 

2 The Passive is an old Middle Voice, peculiar to the Italic and Celtic languages, 
and of uncertain origin. 

3 Of these terminations -I is not a personal ending, but appears to represent an 
Indo-European tense-sign -ai of the Perfect Middle. In -is-ti and -is-tis, -ti and -tis are 
personal endings ; for -is-, see § 169. c. n. In -i-t and -i-mus, -t and -mus are personal 
endings, and i is of uncertain origin. Both -erunt and -ere are also of doubtful origin, 
but the former contains the personal ending -nt. 



§§ 163, 164] THE THREE STEMS 77 

Singular Present Passive Plural 

2. -re : ama-re, be thou loved. -mini : ama-mini, be ye loved. 

Future Passive 

2. -tor : ama-tor, thou shalt be loved. 

3. -tor : ama-tor, he shall be loved. -ntor : ama-ntor, they shall be loved. 

Forms of the Verb 

The Three Stems 

164. The forms of the verb may be referred to three stems, 
called (1) the Present, (2) the Perfect, and (3) the Supine stem. 

1. On the Present stem are formed — 

The Present, Imperfect, and Future Indicative, Active and Passive. 

The Present and Imperfect Subjunctive, Active and Passive. 

The Imperative, Active and Passive. 

The Present Infinitive, Active and Passive. 

The Present Participle, the Gerundive, and the Gerund. 

2. On the Perfect stem are formed — 

The Perfect, Pluperfect, and Future Perfect Indicative Active. 
The Perfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive Active. 
The Perfect Infinitive Active. 

3. On the Supine stem are formed 1 — 

a. The Perfect Passive Participle, which combines with the forms of the 
verb sum, be, to make — 

The Perfect, Pluperfect, and Future Perfect Indicative Passive. 
The Perfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive Passive. 
The Perfect Infinitive Passive. 

b. The Future Active Participle, which combines with esse to make 
the Future Active Infinitive. 

c. The Supine in -um and -ii. The Supine in -urn combines with in to 
make the Future Passive Infinitive (§ 203. a). 

Note. — The Perfect Participle with fore also makes a Future Passive Infinitive 
(as, amatus fore). For fore (futurum esse) ut with the subjunctive, see § 569. 3. a. 

1 The Perfect Passive and Future Active Participles and the Supine, though strictly 
noun-forms, each with its own suffix, agree in having the first letter of the suffix (t) 
the same and in suffering the same phonetic change (t to s, see § 15. 5). Hence these 
forms, along with several sets of derivatives (in -tor, -tura, etc., see § 238. b. n. 1 ), were 
felt by the Romans as belonging to one system, and are conveniently associated with 
the Supine Stem. Thus, from pingo, we have pictum, pictus, picturus, pictor, pictura; 
from rideS, risum (for frid-tum), risus (part.), risus (noun), risurus, risid, risor, risibilis. 



78 



CONJUGATION OF THE VERB 



165, 166 



VERB-ENDINGS 

165. Every form of the finite verb is made up of two parts: 

1. The Stem (see § 24). This is either the root or a modification or 
development of it. 

2. The Ending, consisting of — 

1. the Signs of Mood and Tense (see §§ 168, 169). 

2. the Personal Ending (see § 163). 

Thus in the verb voca-ba-s, you were calling, the root is voc, modified into the 
verb-stem voca-, which by the addition of the ending -bas becomes the imperfect 
tense vocabas ; and this ending consists of the tense-sign ba- and the personal 
ending (-s) of the second person singular. 

166. The Verb-endings, as they are formed by the signs for 
mood and tense combined with personal endings, are — 







ACTIVE 




PASSIVE 


INDICATIVE 


SUBJUNCTIVE 


INDICATIVE 


SUBJUNCTIVE 






Present 




Present 


Sing. 


1. 


-5 


•• .£ !2 


' -m 


-or 




' -r 




2. 


-s 


lis 


-s 


-lis (-re) 


§> » 


-ris (-re) 


Plur. 


3. 
1. 


-t 
-mus 


^ £ l!S 


-t 
-mus 


-tur 
-mur 


e 35 


-tur 
-mur 




2. 
3. 


-tis 
-nt 


§ o 2 


-tis * 


-mini 
-ntur 




-mini 
k -ntur 






Imperfect 




Imperfect 


Sing. 


1. 


-ba-m 




-re-m 


-ba-r 


-re-r 




2. 


-ba-s 




-re-s 


-ba-ris (-re) 


-re-ris (-re) 




3. 


-ba-t 




-re-t 


• ba-tur 


-re-tur 


Plur. 


1. 


-ba-mus 




-re-mus 


-ba-mur 


-re-mur 




2. 


-ba-tis 




-re-tis 


-ba-mini 


-re-mini 




3. 


-ba-nt 




-re-nt 


-ba-ntur 


-re-ntur 






INDICATIVE 




INDICATIVE 






Future 




Future 






1,11! 




m, rv 


i, ii 


ni, rv 1 


Sing. 


1. 


-b-5 


s -^.s 


' -a-m 


-bo-r 




' -a-r 


Plur 


2. 
3. 
1. 


-bi-s 
-bi-t 
-bi-mus 


I- Change: 
ted in itali 
i -id retainii 
these vowe 


-e-s 
-e-t 
-e-mus 


-be-ris (-re) 

-bi-tur 

-bi-mur 




-e-ris (-re) 

-e-tur 

-e-mur 




2. 
3. 


-bi-tis 
-bu-nt 


>? "-3 % S 


-e-tis 
-e-nt 


-bi-mini 
-bu-ntur 


£3 


-e-mini 
-e-ntur 



1 These numerals refer to the four conjugations given later (see § 171). 



166] 



VERB-ENDINGS 



79 



Active 



INDICATIVE 


SUBJUNCTIVE 






Perfect 




Sing. 


1. 


-I 




-eri-m 




2. 


-is-tl 




-eri-s 




3. 


-i-t 




-eri-t 


Plur 


1. 


-i-mus 




-eri-mus 




2. 


-is-tis 




-eri-tis 




3. 


-eru-nt (-ere) 


-eri-nt 






Pluperfect 


Sing. 


1. 


-era-m 




-isse-m 




2. 


-era-s 




-isse-s 




3. 


-era-t 




-isse-t 


Plur 


1. 


-era-mus 




-isse-mus 




2. 


-era-tis 




-isse-tis 




3. 


-era-nt 




-isse-nt 






Future 


Perfect 


Sing. 


1. 
2. 
3. 


-er-5 
-eri-s 
-eri-t 






Plur 


1. 

2. 
3. 


-eri-mus 

-eri-tis 

-eri-nt 







Passive 
indicative subjunctive 
Perfect 



-tus (-ta, 
-turn) 

-ti (-tae, 
-ta) 



-tus(-ta, 
-turn) 

-ti (-tae, 
-ta) 



sum 
es 
est 
sumus 



sunt 



sim 

sis 

sit 

simus 

sitis 

sint 



Pluperfect 



eram 

eras 

erat 

eramus 

eratis 

erant 



essem 
esses 
esset 
essemus 



essent 



-tus (-ta, 
-turn) 

-ti (-tae, 
-ta) 



Future Perfect 
er5 
eris 
erit 
erimus 
eritis 
erunt 



IMPERATIVE 
Present Present 

Sing. 2. Plur. 2. -te Sing. 2. -re Plur. 2. -mini 

Future Future 

2. -to 2. -tote 2. -tor 

3. *-to 3. -nto 3. -tor 3. -ntor 

For convenience a table of the Noun and Adjective forms of 
the verb is here added. 

INFINITIVE 

Pres. -re (Pres. stem) i, n, iv. -ri ; in. -i 

Perf. -isse (Perf. stem) -tus (-ta, -turn) esse 

Fut. -turus (-a, -um) esse -turn In 



Pres. -ns, -ntis 
Fut. -turus, -a, -um 

GERUND SUPINE 

-ndu -nd6, -ndum, -nd5 -turn, -tu 



PARTICIPLES 



Perf. -tus, -ta, -turn 
Ger. -ndus, -nda, -ndum 



80 CONJUGATION OF THE VEEB [§§ 167, 168 

167. A long vowel is shortened before the personal endings 
-m (-r), -t, -nt (-ntur): as, ame-t (for older ame-t), habe-t (for habe-t), 
mone-nt, mone-ntur. 

168. The tenses of the Present System are made from the Pres- 
ent Stem as follows : — 1 

a. In the Present Indicative the personal endings are added directly to 
the present stem. Thus, — present stem ara-: ara-s, ara-mus, ara-tis. 

b. In the Imperfect Indicative the suffix -bam, -bas, etc. (originally a com- 
plete verb) is added to the present stem : as, ara-bam, ara-bas, ara-bamus. 

Note. — The form fbam was apparently an aorist of the Indo-European root bhu 
(cf. fui, futurus, 0uw, English be, been), and meant I was. This was added to a com- 
plete word, originally a case of a verbal noun, as in I was a-seeing; hence vide-bam. 
The form probably began in the Second or Third Conjugation and was extended to the 
others. The a was at first long, but was shortened in certain forms (§ 167). 

c. In the Future Indicative of the First and Second Conjugations a similar 
suffix, -bo, -bis, etc., is added to the present stem : as, ara-bo, ara-bis, mone-bo. 

Note. — The form fbo was probably a present tense of the root bhu, with a future 
meaning, and was affixed to a noun-form as described in b. n. 

d. In the Future Indicative of the Third and Fourth Conjugations the 
terminations -am, -es, etc. (as, teg-am, teg-es, audi-am, audi-es) are really sub- 
junctive endings used in a future sense (see e). The vowel was originally 
long throughout. For shortening, see § 167. 

e. In the Present Subjunctive the personal endings were added to a 
form of the present stem ending in e- or a-, which was shortened in certain 
forms (§ 167). Thus, ame-m, ame-s, tega-mus, tega-nt. 

Note 1. — The vowel e (seen in the First Conjugation: as, am-e-s) is an inherited 
subjunctive mood-sign. It appears to be the thematic vowel e (§ 174. 1) lengthened. 
The a of the other conjugations (mone-a-s, reg-a-s, audi-a-s) is of uncertain origin. 

Note 2. — In a few irregular verbs a Present Subjunctive in -im, -;s, etc. occurs: 
as, sim, sis, simus, velim, veils, etc. This is an old optative, i being a form of the Indo- 
European optative mood-sign ye- (cf. siem, sies, siet, §170. b. n.). The vowel has 
been shortened in the first and third persons singular and the third person plural. 

/• In the Imperfect Subjunctive the suffix -rem, -res, etc. is added to the 
present stem : as, ama-rem, ama-res, mone-rem, tege-rem, audi-rem. 

Note. — The stem element -re- is of uncertain origin and is not found outside of 
Italic. The r is doubtless the aorist sign s (cf . es-se-m, es-se-s) changed to r between 
two vowels (§ 15. 4). The e is probably the subjunctive mood-sign (see e). 

1 The conjugation of a verb consists of separate formations from a root, grad- 
ually grouped together, systematized, and supplemented by new formations made on 
old lines to supply deficiencies. Some of the forms were inherited from the parent 
speech ; others were developed in the course of the history of the Italic dialects or of 
the Latin language itself. 



§§ 169, 170] VERB-ENDINGS 81 

169. The tenses of the Perfect System in the active voice are 
made from the Perfect Stem as follows : — 

a* In the Perfect Indicative the endings -I, -isti, etc. are added directly 
to the perfect stem : as, amav-isti, tex-istis. 

b. In the Pluperfect Indicative the suffix -eram, -eras, etc. is added to the 
perfect stem : as, amav-eram, monu-eras, tex-erat. 

Note. — This seems to represent an older f-is-am etc. formed on the analogy of 
the Future Perfect in -ero (older f-is-o : see c below) and influenced by eram (imperfect 
of sum) in comparison with ero (future of sum). 

c. In the Future Perfect the suffix -ero, -eris, etc. is added to the perfect 
stem : as, amav-ero, monu-eris, tex-erit. 

Note. — This formation was originally a subjunctive of the s-aorist, ending prob- 
ably in f-is-o. The -is- is doubtless the same as that seen in the second person singular of 
the perfect indicative (vid-is-ti), in the perfect infinitive (vid-is-se) , and in the plu- 
perfect subjunctive (vld-is-sem), s being the aorist sign and i probably an old stem 
vowel. 

d* In the Perfect Subjunctive the suffix -erim, -eris, etc. is added to the 
perfect stem : as, amav-erim, monu-eris, tex-erit. 

Note. — This formation was originally an optative of the s-aorist (-er- for older 
-is-, as in the future perfect, see c above) . The i after r is the optative mood-sign I 
shortened (see § 168. e. n. 2 ). Forms in -Is, -it, -imus, -itis, are sometimes found. The 
shortening in -is, -imus, -Itis, is due to confusion with the future perfect. 

e. In the Pluperfect Subjunctive the suffix -issem, -isses, etc. is added to 
the perfect stem : as, amav-issem, monu-isses, tex-isset. 

Note. — Apparently this tense was formed on the analogy of the pluperfect indica- 
tive in f-is-am (later -er-am, see 6), and influenced by essem (earlier fessem) in its 
relation to eram (earlier fesam).i 

The Verb Sum 

170. The verb sum, be, is both irregular and defective, having 
no gerund or supine, and no participle but the future. 

Its conjugation is given at the outset, on account of its impor- 
tance for the inflection of other verbs. 

1 The signs of mood and tense are often said to be inserted between the root (or 
verb-stem) and the personal ending. No such insertion is possible in a language 
developed like the Latin. All true verb-forms are the result, as shown above, of com- 
position; that is, of adding to the root or the stem either personal endings or fully 
developed auxiliaries (themselves containing the personal terminations), or of imita- 
tion of such processes. Thus videbamus is made by adding to vide-, originally a signifi- 
cant word or a form conceived as such, a full verbal form fbamus, not by inserting 
-ba- between vide- and -mus (§ 168. 6). 



82 



CONJUGATION OF THE VERB 



[§170 



Principal Parts : Present Indicative sum, Present Infinitive esse. 
Perfect Indicative fui, Future Participle futiirus. 



Present Stem es- 



Perfect Stem fu- 



Supine Stem fut- 



Sing. 



Plur. 



Sing. 



Plur. 



Sing. 



Plur. 



Sing. 



Plur. 



Sing. 





INDICATIVE 


Present 


subjunctive 


1. 


sum, / am 




sim x 


2. 


£s, thou art (you are) 




sis 


3. 


est, he (she, it) is 




sit 


1. 


sumus, we are 




simus 


2. 


estis, you are 




sitis 


3. 


sunt, they are 


Imperfect 


sint 


1. 


eram, / was 




essem 


2. 


eras, you were 




esses 


3. 


erat, he (she, it) was 




esset 


1. 


eramus, we were 




essemus 


2. 


eratis, you were 




essetis 


3. 


erant, they were 


Future 


essent 


1. 


ero, / shall be 






2. 


eris, you will be 






3. 


eiit, he will be 






1. 


erimus, we shall be 






2. 


eritig, you will be 






3. 


erunt, they will be 


Perfect 




1. 


fui, / was (have been) 




fuerim 


2. 


f uisti, you were 




fueris 


3. 


f uit, he was 




fuerit 


1. 


f uimus, we were 


* 


fuerimus 


2. 


fuistis, you were 




fueritis 


3. 


fuerunt, fuere, they were 


fuerint 




; 


Pluperfect 




1. 


fueram, I had been 




fuissem 


2. 


fueras, you had been 




fuisses 


3. 


fuerat, he had been 




fuisset 



1 All translations of the Subjunctive are misleading, and hence none is given ; see 
§ 157. 6. 



§170] 



THE VERB SUM 



83 



Plur. 



Sing. 



1. fueramus, we had been 

2. fueratis, you had been 
3c fuerant, they had been 



fuissemus 

fuissetis 

fuissent 



Future Perfect 

1. fuero, I shall have been Plur. 1. fuerimus, we shall have been 

2. fueris, you will have been 2. fueritis, you will have been 

3. fuerit, he will have been 3. fuerint, they will have been 



IMPERATIVE 

Present Sing. 2. 6s, be thou Plur. 2. este, be ye 

Future 2. esto, thou shalt be 2. estote, ye shall be 

3. esto, he shall be 3. sunto, they shall be 

INFINITIVE 
Present esse, to be 
Perfect fuisse, to have been 
Future futurus esse or fore, to be about to be 



PARTICIPLE 
Future futurus, -a, -urn, about to be 

a. For essem, esses, etc., forem, fores, foret, f orent, are often used ; so fore 
for futurus esse. 

b. The Present Participle, which would regularly be f sons, 1 appears in 
the adjective in -sons, innocent, and in a modified form in ab-sens, prae-sens. 
The simple form ens is sometimes found in late or philosophical Latin as a 
participle or abstract noun, in the forms ens, being ; entia, things which are. 

Note. — Old forms are: — Indicative: Future, escit, escunt (strictly an inchoa- 
tive present, see § 263. 1) . 

Subjunctive : Present, siem, sies, siet, sient ; fuam, fuas, fuat, fuant ; Perfect, fuvi- 
mus ; Pluperfect, fuvisset. 

The root of the verb sum is es, which in the imperfect is changed to er (see § 15. 4), 
and in many forms is shortened to s. Some of its modifications, as found in several 
languages more or less closely related to Latin, may be seen in the following table, — 
the Sanskrit sydm corresponding to the Latin sim (siem) : — 
Sanskrit Greek 

as-mi sydm (optative) e^t 2 
as-i syds i<r<rl 2 

as-ti sydt earl 

s-mas sydma Itrniv 

s-tha sydta hark 

s-anti syus evri 2 

The Perfect and Supine stems, fu-, fut-, 
the English be. • 

1 Compare Sankrit sant t Greek &v> 



Latin 


Lithuanian 


s-um sim (siem) 


es-mi 


es sis (sies) 


es-i 


es-t sit (siet) 


es-ti 


s-umus simus 


es-me 


es-tis sitis 


es-te 


s-unt sint (sient) 


es-ti 


are kindred with the Greek %<f>v, and with 


reek &v> 2 Old form. 





84 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB [§§ 171-173 

The Four Conjugations 

171. Verbs are classed in Four Regular Conjugations, distin- 
guished by the stem-vowel which appears before -re in the Present 
Infinitive Active : — 



Conjugation 


Infinitive Ending 


Ste 


First 
Second 
Third 
Fourth 


-are (amare) 
-ere (monere) 
-ere (regere) 
-Ire (audire) 


a 
e 
e 
I 



The Principal Parts 

172. The Principal Parts of a verb, showing the three stems 
which determine its conjugation throughout, are — 



1. The Present Indicative fas, amo) . 1 , . ,, _. ^ ^ 
n m , t, , T n ... , - \ \ showing the Present Stem, 

2. The Present Infinitive (as, ama-re) J , ° 

3. The Perfect Indicative (as, amav-i), showing the Perfect Stem. 

4. The neuter of the Perfect Participle (as, amat-urn), or, if that form 
is not in use, the Future Active Participle (amat-urus), showing the Supine 
Stem. 

173. The regular forms of the Four Conjugations are seen in 
the following : — 

First Conjugation : — 

Active, amo, amare, amavi, amatum, love. 

Passive, amor, amari, amatus. 

Present Stem ama-, Perfect Stem amav-, Supine Stem amat% 

Second Conjugation : — 

Active, deleo, delere, delevi, deletum, blot out. 

Passive, deleor, deleri, deletus. 

Present Stem dele-, Perfect Stem delev-, Supine Stem delet-. 

In the Second conjugation, however, the characteristic e- rarely appears 
in the perfect and perfect participle. The common type is, therefore : — 

Active, moneo, monere, monui, monitum, warn. 

Passive, moneor, moneri, monitus. 

Present Stem mone-, Perfect Stem monu-, Supine Stem monit-. 






§§ 173, 174] PRESENT STEM 85 

Third Conjugation : — 

Active, tego, tegere, texi, tectum, cover. 

Passive, tegor, tegi, tectus. 

Present Stem tege-, Perfect Stem tex-, Supine Stem tect-. 

Fourth Conjugation : — 

Active, audio, audire, audivi, auditum, hear. 

Passive, audior, audiri, auditus. 

Present Stem audi-, Perfect Stem audiv-, Supine Stem audit-. 

a. In many verbs the principal parts take forms belonging to two or 
more different conjugations (cf. § 189): — 

1, 2, domo, domare, domui, domitum, subdue. 

2, 3, maneo, manere, mansi, mansum, remain. 

3, 4, peto, petere, petivi, petitum, seek. 

4, 3, vincio, vincire, vinxi, vinctum, bind. 

Such verbs are referred to the conjugation to which the Present stem 
conforms. 

Present Stem 

174. The parent (Indo-European) speech from which Latin comes had two main 
classes of verbs : — 

1. Thematic Verbs, in which a so-called thematic vowel (%, in Latin i/u) appeared 
between the root and the personal ending: as, leg-i-tis (for fleg-e-tes), leg-u-nt (for 
tleg-o-nti).i 

2. Athematic Verbs, in which the personal endings were added directly to the root : 
as, es-t, es-tis (root es) 2 , da-mus (do, root da), fer-t (fero, root fer). 

Of the Athematic Verbs few survive in Latin, and these are counted as irregular, 
except such as have been forced into one of the four " regular" conjugations. Even 
the irregular verbs have admitted many forms of the thematic type. 

Of the Thematic Verbs a large number remain. These may be divided into two 
classes : — 

1. Verbs which preserve the thematic vowel e or o (in Latin i or u) before the per- 
sonal endings. — These make up the Third Conjugation. The present stem is formed 
in various ways (§ 176), but always ends in a short vowel e / (Latin i/ u ). Examples are 
tego (stem teg%-), sternimus (stem stern 6 / -) for fster-no-mos, plectunt (stem plect e / -) 
for fplec-to-nti. So nosed (stem gn5sc e / -) for gn5-sc-o. Verbs like nosco became the 
type for a large number of verbs in -sco, called incentives (§ 263. 1). 

2. Verbs which form the present stem by means of the suffix y e / -, which already 
contained the thematic vowel e / . — Verbs of this class in which any vowel (except 
u) came in contact with the suffix y e / ~ suffered contraction so as to present a long- 
vowel a-, e-, I-, at the end of the stem. In this contraction the thematic e / disappeared. 
These became the types of the First, Second, and Fourth conjugations respectively. 
In imitation of these long vowel-stems numerous verbs were formed by the Romans 
themselves (after the mode of formation had been entirely forgotten) from noun- and 

1 Cf . Ae7-e-re, X^y-o-fiev ; Doric \£y-o-VTi. 

2 Cf. £<t-tL, c<t-t4 (see p. 83, note). 



86 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB [§§ 174-176 

adjective-stems. This came to be the regular way of forming new verbs, just as in 
English the borrowed suffix -ize can be added to nouns and adjectives to make 
verbs: as, macadamize, modernize. 

Thematic verbs of the second class in which a consonant or u came into contact 
with the suffix y e / - suffered various phonetic changes. Such verbs fall partly into 
the Third Conjugation, giving rise to an irregular form of it, and partly into the Fourth, 
and some have forms of both. Examples are : — (con)spicio (-spicere) for fspekyo ; veniS 
(venire) for t (g)vem-yo ; cupio, cupere, but cupivi ; orior, oritur, but oriri. Note, however, 
pluo (pluere) for fplu-yo ; and hence, by analogy, acu5 (acuere) for facu-yo. 

In all these cases many cross-analogies and errors as well as phonetic changes have 
been at work to produce irregularities. Hence has arisen the traditional system which 
is practically represented in §§ 175, 176. 

175. The Present Stem may be found by dropping -re in the 

Present Infinitive : — 

ama-re, stem ama-; mone-re, stem mone-; tege-re, stem tege-; audi-re, stem 
audi-. 

176. The Present Stem is formed from the Root in all regu- 
lar verbs in one of the following ways : — 

a. In the First, Second, and Fourth conjugations, by adding a long 
vowel (a-, e-, I-) to the root, whose vowel is sometimes changed : as, voca-re 
(voc), mone-re (men, cf. memini), sopi-re (sop). 1 

Note. — Verb-stems of these conjugations are almost all really formed from noun- 
stems on- the pattern of older formations (see § 174). 

b. In the Third Conjugation, by adding a short vowel e /o 2 to the root. 
In Latin this % usually appears as i/ u , but e is preserved in some forms. 
Thus, tegi-s (root teg), ali-tis (al), regu-nt (reg) ; but tege-ris (tege-re), ale-ris. 

1. The stem-vowel % (i/ u ) may be preceded by n, t, or sc : 3 as, tem-ni-tis, 
tem-nu-nt, tem-ne-ris (tem) ; plec-ti-s (plec) ; cre-sci-tis (cre). 

2. Verbs in -io of the Third Conjugation (as, capiS, capere) show in some forma 
an i before the final vowel of the stem : as, cap-i-unt (cap), fug-i-unt (fug). 

c. The root may be changed — 

1. By the repetition of a part of it (reduplication) : as, gi-gn-e-re (gen). 

2. By the insertion of a nasal (m or n) : as, find-e-re (fid), tang-e-re (tag). 

1 Most verbs of the First, Second, and Fourth Conjugations form the present stem by 
adding the suffix -y e / - to a noun-stem. The a of the First Conjugation is the stem-ending 
of the noun (as, planta-re, from planta-, stem of planta). The e of the Second and the I 
of the Fourth Conjugation are due to contraction of the short vowel of the noun-stem 
with the ending -y%-. Tilus albere is from alb%-, stem of albus ; finire is from fini-, 
stem of finis. Some verbs of these classes, however, come from roots ending in a vowel. 

2 This is the so-called " thematic vowel." 

3 In these verbs the stem-ending added to the root is respectively -n%-, -t%^ 
sc e / n -. 



§§ 176, 177] PERFECT STEM 87 

d • In some verbs the present stem is formed from a noun-stem in u- : 
as, statu-e-re (statu-s), aestu-a-re (aestu-s); cf. acuo, acuere. 1 

Note 1. — A few isolated forms use the simple root as a present stem: as, fer-re, 
fer-t ; es-se ; vel-le, vul-t. These are counted as irregular. 

Note 2. — In some verbs the final consonant of the root is doubled before the stem- 
vowel : as, pell-i-tis (pel) , mitt-i-tis (mit) . 

e. Some verbs have roots ending in a vowel. In these the present stem 
is generally identical with the root : as, da-mus (da), fle-mus (stem fle-, root 
form unknown). 2 But others, as rui-mus (ru), are formed with an addi- 
tional vowel according to the analogy of the verbs described in d. 

Note. — Some verbs of this class reduplicate the root: as, si-st-e-re (sta, cf. stare). 

Perfect Stem 
177. The Perfect Stem is formed as follows : — - 

a. The suffix v (u) is added to the verb-stem : as, voca-v-i, audi-v-i ; or 
to the root : as, son-u-i (sona-re, root son), mon-u-i (mone-re, mon treated 
as a root). 3 

Note. — In a few verbs the vowel of the root is transposed and lengthened : as, 
stra-v-i (sterno, star), spre-v-i (spern5, spar). 

&. The suffix s is added to the root : as, carp-s-i (carp), tex-i (for teg-s-i, 
teg). 4 

Note. — The modifications of the present stem sometimes appear in the perfect: 
as, finx-i (fig, present stem finge-), sanx-I (sac, present stem sanci-). 

c. The root is reduplicated by prefixing the first consonant — generally 
with e, sometimes with the root-vowel : as, ce-cid-i (cado, cad), to-tond-i 
(tondeo, tond). 

Note. — Infid-I (for ffe-fid-i, find-o), scid-i (for f sci-scid-i, scindo), the reduplication 
has been lost, leaving merely the root. 

d. The root vowel is lengthened, sometimes with vowel change : as, leg-i 
(leg-o), em-i (em-6), vid-i (vid-e-o), fug-i (fug-i-o), eg-i (ag-o). 

e. Sometimes the perfect stem has the same formation that appears in 
the present tense : as, vert-i (vert-o), solv-i (solv-o). 

/. Sometimes the perfect is formed from a lost or imaginary stem : as, 
peti-v-I (as if from fpeti-o, fpeti-re, pet). 

1 These are either old formations in -y e / - in which the y has disappeared after the 
u (as, statuo for jstatu-yo) or later imitations of such forms. 

2 In some of the verbs of this class the present stem was originally identical with 
the root; in others the ending -y e / - was added, but has been absorbed by contraction. 

3 The v-perfect is a form of uncertain origin peculiar to the Latin. 

4 The s-perfect is in origin an aorist. Thus, dix-i (for fdics-i) corresponds to the 
Greek aorist €-5et£-a (for te-Sei/ctf-a). 



88 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB [§§ 178, 179 

Supine Stem 

178. The Supine Stem may be found by dropping -urn from the 
Supine. It is formed by adding t (or, by a phonetic change, s) — 

a» To the present stem : as, ama-t-um, dele-t-um, audi-t-um. 
b. To the root, with or without i : as, cap-t-um (capio, cap), moni-t-um 
(moneo, mon used as root), cas-um (for fcad-t-um, cad), lec-t-um (leg). 

Note 1. — By phonetic change dt and tt become s (defensum, versum for fde-fend- 
t-um, fvert-t-um) ; bt becomes pt (scrip-t-um for f scrib-t-um) ; gt becomes ct (rec-t-um 
for freg-t-um).i 

Note 2. — The modifications of the present stem sometimes appear in the supine: 
as, tinc-t-um (ting5, tig), ten-s-um for ftend-t-um (ten-d-o, ten). 

Note 3. — The supine is sometimes from a lost or imaginary verb-stem : as, peti-t-um 
(as if from fpeti-5, fpeti-re, pet). 

Note 4. — A few verbs form the supine stem in s after the analogy of verbs in d 
and t : as, f al-s-um (fallo) , pul-s-um (pello) . 

Forms of Conjugation 

179. The forms of the several conjugations from which, by 
adding the verb-endings in § 166, all the moods and tenses can 
be made are as follows : — 

a. The First Conjugation includes all verbs which add a- to the 
root to form the present stem : 2 as, ama-re ; with a few whose root 
ends in a (ffor, fa-ri; fio, fla-re; no, na-re ; sto, sta-re). 

1. The stem-vowel a- is lost before -o : as, amo = fama-(y)o ; and in the 
present subjunctive it is changed to e : as, ame-s, ame-mus. 

2. The perfect stem regularly adds v, the supine stem t, to the present 
stem: as, ama-v-i, ama-t-um. For exceptions, see § 209. a. 

b. The Second Conjugation includes all verbs which add e- to the 
root to form the present stem : as, mone-re ; with a few whose root 
ends in e ; as, fle-o, fle-re ; ne-o, ne-re ; re-or, re-ri (cf. § 176. e). 

1. In the present subjunctive a is added to the verb-stem: as, mone-a-s, 
mone-a-mus (cf. § 168. c). 

2. A few verbs form the perfect stem by adding v (u), and the supine 
stem by adding t, to the present stem : as, dele-v-i, dele-t-um. But most 
form the perfect stem by adding v (u) to the root, and the supine stem by 
adding t to a weaker form of the present stem, ending in i : as, mon-u-i, 
moni-t-um. For lists, see § 210. 

1 For these modifications of the supine stem, see § 15. 5, 6, 10. 

2 The present stem is thus the verb-stem. For exceptions, see § 209. a. 



§179] FORMS OF CONJUGATION 89 

c. The Third Conjugation includes all verbs (not irregular, see 
§ 197) which add e- to the root to form the present stem : as, tege- 
re, cape-re ; with a few whose root ends in e : as, se-re-re for fse-se-re 
(reduplicated from se, cf. satum). 

1. The stem-vowel e is regularly lost before -o, and becomes u 1 before 
-nt and i before the other endings of the indicative and imperative : as, 
teg-o, tegi-t, tegu-nt ; in the imperfect indicative it becomes e : as, tege- 
bam, tege-bas, etc. ; in the future, e : as, tege-s (except in the first person 
singular, tega-m, tega-r) ; in the present subjunctive, a : as, tega-s. 

Verbs in -io lose the i before a consonant and also before i, I, and e 
(except in the future, the participle, the gerund, and the gerundive). 
Thus, — capi-at, capi-unt, capi-ebat, capi-es, capi-et, capi-ent ; but, cap-it 
(not fcapi-it), cap-eret. 

2. All varieties of perfect and supine stems are found in this conjuga- 
tion. See lists, §211. The perfect is not formed from the present stem, 
but from the root. 

d. The Fourth Conjugation includes all verbs which add I- to the 
root to form the present stem : as, audi-re. 2 In these the perfect and 
supine stems regularly add v, t, to the verb-stem : as, audi-v-i, audi- 
t-um. 3 Endings like those of the third conjugation are added in the 
third person plural of the present (indicative and imperative), in 
the imperfect and future indicative, and in the present subjunctive : 
as, audi-unt, audi-ebat, audi-etis, audi-at, the i being regularly short 
before a vowel. 

e. The Present Imperative Active (second person singular) is the 
same as the present stem : as, ama, inone, tege, audi. But verbs in -io 
of the third conjugation omit i: as, cape (not fcapie). 

/. The tenses of completed action in the Active voice are all regu- 
larly formed by adding the tense-endings (given in § 166) to the 
perfect stem : as, amav-i, amav-eram, amav-ero, amav-erim, amav-issem, 
amav-isse. 

g. The tenses of completed action in the Passive voice are formed 
by adding to the perfect participle the corresponding tenses of con- 
tinued action of the verb esse : as, perfect amatus sum ; pluperfect 
amatus eram, etc. 

1 The gerundive varies between -endus and -undus. 

2 A few are formed from noun-stems, as fini-re (from fini-s) , and a few roots perhaps 
end in i ; but these are not distinguishable in form. 

3 For exceptions, see § 212. b. 



90 



CONJUGATION OF THE VERB 



[§180 



Synopsis of the Verb 

180. The following synopsis shows the forms of the verb ar- 
ranged according to the three stems (§ 164). Amo, a regular verb 
©f the first conjugation, is taken as a type. 

Principal Parts : Active, amo, amare, amavi, amatum. 
Passive, amor, amari, amatus sum. 



Present 


stem ama- 


Perfect stem amav- Supine stem amat- 




ACTIVE 


PASSIVE 
Present stem, ama- 


Pres. 

Imperf. 

Fut. 


INDICATIVE 
amo 

ama-bam 
ama-bo 


amo-r 

ama-bar 

ama-bor 


Pres. 
Imperf. 


ame-m 
ama-rem 


SUBJUNCTIVE 


ame-r 
ama-rer 


Pres. 
Fut. 


ama 
ama-to 


IMPERATIVE 


ama-re 
ama-tor 


Pres. 


ama-re 


INFINITIVE 


ama-ri 


Pres. 


ama-ns 


PARTICIPLE 


Gerundive ama-ndus 



GERUND ama-ndi 



Perfect stem, amav- 



Supine stem, amat- 



Perf. 
Pluperf. 
Fut. Perf. 


INDICATIVE 
ama.v-1 
amav-eram 
amav-ero 


amat-us sum 
amat-us erarn 
amat-us ero 


Perf. 
Pluperf. 


SUBJUNCTIVE 
amav-erim 
amav-issem 


amat-us sim 
amat-us essem 


Perf. 


INFINITIVE 
amav-isse 






Supine stem, amat- 




INFINITIVE 





Perf. 
Fut. 

Fut. 



amat-us esse 
amat-urus esse amat-um in 

PARTICIPLE 
amat-urus Perf. amat-us 



SUPINE amat-um amat-u 



§§181-183] PECULIARITIES OF CONJUGATION 91 

Peculiarities of Conjugation 

181. In tenses formed upon the Perfect Stem, v between two 
vowels is often lost and contraction takes place. 

a. Perfects in -avi, -evi, -ovi, often contract the two vowels into a, e, o, 
respectively : as, amasse for amavisse ; amarim for amaverim ; amassem for 
amavissem ; c5nsuerat for consueverat ; flestis for flevistis ; nosse for novisse. 
So in perfects in -vi, where the v is a part of the present stem : as, commorat 
for commoverat. 

Note. — The first person of the perfect indicative (as, amavi) is never contracted, 
the third very rarely. 

b* Perfects in -ivi regularly omit v, but rarely contract the vowels ex- 
cept before st and ss, and very rarely in the third person perfect : — 

audieram for audiveram ; audisse for audivisse ; audisti for audivisti ; abiit for 
abivit ; abierunt for abiverunt. 

Note 1. — The forms siris, sirit, siritis, sirint, for siveris etc. (from sivero or slverim), 
are archaic. 

Note 2. — In many forms from the perfect stem is, iss, sis, are lost in like manner, 
when s would be repeated if they were retained : as, dixti for dixisti (x = cs) ; traxe 
for traxisse ; evasti for evasisti ; vixet for vixisset ; erepsemus for erepsissemus ; decesse 
for decessisse. These forms belong to archaic and colloquial usage. 

182. Four verbs, — dico, duxo, facio, fero, — with their compounds, 
drop the vowel-termination of the Imperative, making die, due, fac, 
fer j but compounds in -ficio retain it, as, confice. 

Note. — The imperative forms dice, duce, face (never fere), occur in early Latin. 

a* For the imperative of scio, the future form scito is always used in the 
singular, and scitote usually in the plural. 

183. The following ancient forms are found chiefly in poetry : 

1. In the fourth conjugation, -Ibam, -ibo, for -iebam, -iam (future). These 
forms are regular in eo, go (§ 203). 

2. In the present subjunctive, -im : as in duim, perduim, retained in 
religious formulas and often in comedy. This form is regular in sum and 
volo and their compounds (§§ 170, 199). 

3. In the perfect subjunctive and future perfect indicative, -sim, -so : as, 
faxim, faxo, iusso, recepso (= fecerim etc.) ; ausim (= ausus sim). 

4. In the passive infinitive, -ier : as, vocarier for vocari; agier for agl. 

5. A form in -asso, -assere is found used as a future perfect : as, amassis, 
from amo ; levasso, from levo ; impetrassere, from impetro ; iudicassit, from 
iudico (cf. § 263. 2. b. n.). 



92 



CONJUGATION OF THE VEKB 



[§184 



FIRST CONJUGATION (a -STEMS) — ACTIVE VOICE 

184. The First Conjugation includes all verbs which add a- to 
the root to form the present stem, with a few whose root ends 
in a-. . The verb amo, love, is conjugated as follows : — 

Principal Parts : Present Indicative amo, Present Infinitive amare, 
Perfect Indicative amavi, Supine amatum. 



Present stem ama- 



Perfect stem amav- 



Supine stem amat- 



INDICATIVE 




Present 


SUBJUNCTIVE 


amo, 1 / love, am loving, 


do love 


amem 2 


amas, thou lovest (you love) 




ames 


amat, he (she, it) loves 






amet 


amamus, we love 






amemus 


amatis, you love 






ametis 


amant, they love 




Imperfect 


ament 


amabam, / loved, was loving, did love 


amarem 


amabas, you loved 






amares 


amabat, he loved 






amaret 


amabamus, we loved 






amaremus 


amabatis, you loved 






amaretis 


amabant, they loved 






amarent 



Future 



amabo, / shall love 
amabis, you will love 
amabit, he will love 

amabimus, we shall love 
amabitis, you will love 
amabunt, they will love 



1 The stem-vowel a- is lost before -o, and in the Present Subjunctive becomes e-. 

2 The translation of the Subjunctive varies widely according to the construction. 
Hence no translation of this mood is given in the paradigms. 



§ 184] FIRST CONJUGATION 93 

INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE 

Perfect 

amavi, / loved, have loved amaverim 

amavisti, you loved araaveris 

amavit, he loved amaverit 

amavimus, we loved amaverimus 

amavistis, you loved amaveritis 

amaverunt (-ere), they loved arnaverint 

Pluperfect 

amaveram, / had loved amavissem 

amaveras, you had loved amavisses 

am aver at, he had loved amavisset 

araaveramus, we had loved amavissemus 

amaveratis, you had loved amavissetis 

amaverant, they had loved amavissent 

Future Perfect 

Singular Plural 

amavero, / shall have loved amaverimus, we shall have loved 

amaveris, you will have loved amaveritis, you will have loved 

amaverit, he will have loved amaverint, they will have loved 

IMPERATIVE 
Present ama, love thou amate, love ye 

Future amato, thou shalt love amatote, ye shall love 
amato, he shall love amantS, they shall love 

INFINITIVE 
Present amare, to love 

Perfect amavisse or amasse, to have loved 
Future amaturus esse, to be about to love 

PARTICIPLES 
Present amans, -antis, loving 
Future amaturus, -a, -um, about to love 

GERUND 
Genitive amandi, of loving Accusative amandum, loving 

Dative amando, for loving Ablative amando, by loving 

SUPINE 
amatum, to love amatii, to love 



94 



CONJUGATION OF THE VERB 



[§184 



FIRST CONJUGATION (tf-STEMS) — PASSIVE VOICE 

Principal Parts : Present Indicative amor, Present Infinitive amari, 
Perfect Indicative amatus sum. 1 



Present stem ama- 



Supine stem amat- 



INDICATIVE 



Present 



amor, 2 / am loved, being loved 
amaris (-re), you are loved 
amatur, he is loved 

amamur, we are loved 
amamini, you are loved 
amantur, they are loved 



SUBJIHSPCTIVE 

amer 3 
ameris (-re) 
ametur 

amemur 
amemini 
amentur 



Imperfect 

amabar, / was loved, being loved amarer 

amabaris (-re), you were loved amareris (-re) 

amabatur, he was loved amaretur 

amabamur, we were loved amaremur 

amabamini, you were loved amaremini 

amabantur, they were loved amarentur 

Future 

amabor, / shall be loved 
amaberis (-re), you will be loved 
amabitur, he will be loved 

amabimur, we shall be loved 
amabimini, you will be loved 
amabuntur, they will be loved 



i Fui, fuisti, etc., are sometimes used instead of sum, es, etc. ; so also fueram instead 
of eram and fuerS instead of ero. Similarly in the Perfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive 
fuerim, fueris, etc. are sometimes used instead of sim, sis, etc., and fuissem instead of 
essem. 

2 The stem-vowel a- is lost before'-or, and in the Present Subjunctive becomes e-. 

8 The translation of the Subjunctive varies widely according to the construction. 
Hence no translation of this mood is given in the paradigms. 



§184] 



FIRST CONJUGATION 



95 



INDICATIVE 

arnatus sum, 1 / was loved 
amatus es, you were loved 
amatus est, he was loved 

amati sumus, we were loved 
amati estis, you were loved 
amati sunt, they were loved 



Perfect 



SUBJUNCTIVE 



amatus sim * 
amatus sis 
amatus sit 

amati simus 
amati sitis 
amati sint 



Pluperfect 



amatus eram, 1 / had been loved 
amatus eras, you had been loved 
amatus erat, he had been loved 

amati eramus, we had been loved 
amati eratis, you had been loved 
amati erant, they had been loved 



amatus essem 1 
amatus esses 
amatus esset 

amati essemus 
amati essetis 
amati essent 



Future Perfect 



Singular 

amatus ero, 1 / shall have been loved 
amatus eris, you will have, etc. 
amatus erit, he will have, etc. 



Plural 

amati erimus, we shall have, etc. 
amati eritis, you will have, etc. 
amati erunt, they will have, etc. 



IMPERATIVE 

Present am are, be thou loved amamini, be ye loved 

Future amator, thou shalt be loved 

amator, he shall be loved amantor, they shall be loved 

INFINITIVE 

Present amari, to be loved 

Perfect amatus esse, to have been loved 

Future amatum in, to be about to be loved 

PARTICIPLES 

Perfect amatus, -a, -um, loved (beloved, or having been loved) 

Future (Gerundive) amandus, -a, -um, to-be-loved (lovely) 



1 See page 94, footnote 1. 



96 



CONJUGATION OF THE VERB 



[§185 



SECOND CONJUGATION (e-STEMS) 

185. The Second Conjugation includes all verbs which add e- 
to the root to form the present stem, with a few whose root ends 
in e-. 



Principal Parts : Active, moneo, monere, monui, monitum; 
Passive, moneor, moneri, monitus sum. 



Present stem mone- 



Perfect stem monu- 



Supine stem monit- 



ACTIVE VOICE 
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE 

Present 

moneo, / warn moneam 1 
monSs, you warn moneas 
monet, he warns moneat 



monemus 

monetis 

monent 



moneamus 

moneatis 

moneant 



PASSIVE VOICE 
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE 

Present 



moneor 
moneris (-re) 
monetur 

monemur 
monemini 
monentur 



monear x 
monearis (-re) 
moneatur 

moneamur 
moneamini 
moneantur 



Imperfect 



monebam 

monebas 

monebat 

monebamus 

monebatis 

monebant 



monerem 

moneres 

moneret 

moneremus 

moneretis 
monerent 



Imperfect 

monebar monerer 

monebaris (-re) monereris (-re) 
monebatur moneretur 

monebamur moneremur 

monebamini moneremini 
monebantur monerentur 



Future 



monebo 
monebis 
mongbit 

monebimus 

monebitis 

monebunt 



Future 

monebor 
moneberis (-re) 
monebitur 

monebimur 
monebimini 
monebuntur 



1 See § 179. b. 1. 



185] 



SECOND CONJUGATION 



97 



Active Voice 

INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE 

Perfect 

monui monuerim 

monuisti monueris 

monuit monuerit 

monuimus monuerimus 

monuistis monueritis 

monuerunt (-re) monuerint 

Pluperfect 



Passive Voice 

INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE 

Perfect 
monitus sum * monitus sim * 



monitus es 
monitus est 
moniti sumus 
moniti estis 
moniti sunt 



monitus sis 
monitus sit 
moniti simus 
moniti sitis 
moniti sint 



Pluperfect 



monueram 

monueras 

monuerat 

monueram us 

monueratis 

monuerant 



monuissem 

monuisses 

monuisset 

monuissemus 

monuissetis 

monuissent 



monitus eram 1 
monitus eras 
monitus erat 
moniti eramus 
moniti eratis 
moniti erant 



monitus essem l 
monitus esses 
monitus esset 
moniti essemus 
moniti essetis 
moniti esseut 



Future Perfect 
monuero 
monueris 
monuerit 
monuerimus 
monueritis 
monuerint 



Future Perfect 
monitus ero 1 
monitus eris 
monitus erit 
moniti erimus 
moniti eritis 
moniti erunt 



Singular 
Present mone 
Future monetS 

moneto 



IMPERATIVE 

Plural Singular 

monete Present monere 

monetote Future monetor 

monento monetor 



Plural 
monemini 



monentor 



Present monere 
Perfect monuisse 
Future moniturus esse 



INFINITIVE 

moneri 
monitus esse 
monitum Iri 



PARTICIPLES 
Present monens, -entis Perfect monitus, -a, -um 

Future moniturus, -a, -um Gerundive monendus, -a,-um 

GERUND SUPINE 

monendi, -do, -dum, -do monitum, monitu 



1 See footnote 1 on page 94. 



98 



CONJUGATION OF THE VERB 



[§186 



THIRD CONJUGATION (£-STEMS) 

186. The Third Conjugation includes all verbs (not irregular, 
see § 197) which add g- to the root to form the present stem, with 
a few whose root ends in g-. 
p- 
Principal Parts : Active, tego, tegere, texl, tectum ; 
Passive, tegor, tegi, tectus sum. 



Present stem tege- 



Perfect stem tex- 1 



Supine stem tect- 



ACTIVE VOICE 



PASSIVE VOICE 



INDICATIVE 


SUBJUNCTIVE 


INDICATIVE 


SUBJUNCTIVE 


Present 


Present 


tego, 2 I cover 
tegis, you cover 
tegit, he covers 


tegam 2 

tegas 

tegat 


tegor 2 
tegeris (-re) 
tegitur 


tegar 2 
tegaris (-re) 
tegatur 


tegimus 

tegitis 

tegunt 


tegamus 

tegatis 
tegant 


tegimur 
tegimini 
teguntur 


tegamur 
tegamini 
tegantur 


Imperfect 


Imperfect 


tegebam 

tegebas 

tegebat 


tegerem 

tegeres 

tegeret 


tegebar 
tegebaris (-re) 
tegebatur 


tegerer 
tegereris (-re) 
tegeretur 



tegebamus tegeremus 

tegebatis tegeretis 

tegebant tegerent 



tegebamur tegergmur 

tegebamini tegere" mini 

tegebantur tegerentur 



Future 



Future 



tegam 2 

teges 

teget 

tegemus 

tegetis 

tegent 



tegar 2 
teggris (-re) 
tegetur 

tegemur 
tegemini 
tegentur 



1 The perfect stem in this conjugation is always formed from the root; tex- is for 
teg-s- (see § 15. 9). 2 See 5 179 . Cm la 



186] 



THIRD CONJUGATION 



99 



Active Voice 

INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE 

Perfect 
texi texerim 

texisti texeris 

texit texerit 

texirnus texerimus 

texistis texeritis 

texerunt (-re) texerint 

Pluperfect 
texeram texissem 

texeras texisses 

texerat texisset 

texeramus texissemus 

texeratis texissetis 

texerant texissent 

Future Perfect 
texero 
texerid 
texerit 

texerimus 

texeritis 

texerint 

Singular Plural 

Present tege tegite 

Future tegito tegitote 

tegito tegnnto 



Passive Voice 

INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE 

Perfect 



tectus sum J 
tectus es 
tectus est 

tecti sumus 
tecti estis 
tecti sunt 



tectus sim x 
tectus sis 
tectus sit 

tecti simus 
tecti sitis 
tecti sint 



Pluperfect 



tectus eram 1 
tectus eras 
tectus erat 

tecti eramus 
tecti eratis 
tecti erant 



tectus essem 1 
tectus esses 
tectus esset 

tecti essemus 
tecti essetis 
tecti essent 



Future Perfect 
tectus er5 1 
tectus eris 
tectus erit 

tecti erimus 
tecti eritis 
tecti erunt 



Present 
Perfect 
Future 



tegere 
texisse 
tectiirus esse 



IMPERATIVE 

Singular 
tegere 
tegitor 
tegitor 

INFLNITIVE 
tegi 

tectus esse 
tectum iri 



Plural 
tegimini 

teguntor 



PARTICIPLES 
Present tegens, -entis Perfect 

Future tecturus, -a, -um Gerundive 

GERUND SUPINE 

tegendi, -do, -dum, -do tectum, tectii 



tectus, -a, -um 
tegendus (-undus) 



i See footnote 1 on page 94. 



100 



CONJUGATION OF THE VERB 



[§187 



FOURTH CONJUGATION (/-STEMS) 

187. The Fourth Conjugation includes all verbs which add I- 
to the root to form the present stem. 

Principal Parts : Active, audio, audire, audivi, auditum ; 
Passive, audior, audiri, auditus sum. 



Present stem audi- 



Perfect stem audiv- 



Supine stem audit- 



ACTIVE 


VOICE 


PASSIVE 


VOICE 


INDICATIVE 


SUBJUNCTIVE 


INDICATIVE 


SUBJUNCTIVE 


* Present 


Present 


audio, / hear 
audis, you hear 
audit, he hears 


audiam * 

audias 

audiat 


audior 
audiris (-re) 
auditur 


audiar 1 
audiaris (-re) 
audiatur 


audimus 

auditis 

audiunt 


audiamus 

audiatis 

audiant 


audimur 
audimini 
audiuntur 


audiamur 
audiamini 
audiantur 


Imperfect 


Imperfect 


audiebam a 

audiebas 

audiebat 


audirem 

audires 

audiret 


audiebar 2 
audiebaris (-re) 
audiebatur 


audirer 
audireris (-re^ 
audiretur 



audiebamus audlremus 

audiebatis audire tis 

audiebant audirent 



audiebamur audiremur 

audiebamini audiremini 
audiebantur audirentur 



Future 



Future 



audiam x 

audies 

audiet 

audiemua 

audietis 

audient 



audiar 1 
audieris (-re) 
audietur 

audiemur 
audiemini 
audientur 



1 See § 179. d. 



§187] 



FOURTH CONJUGATION 



101 



Active Voice 

INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE 

Perfect 



audivi 

audivisti 

audivit 

audivimus 

audivistis 



audiverim 

audiveris 

audiverit 

audiverimus 

audiveritis 



audiverunt (-re) audiverint 
Pluperfect 



audiveram 

audiveras 

audiverat 

audiveramus 

audiveratis 

audiverant 



audivissem 

audivisses 

audivisset 

audivissemus 

audivissetis 

audivissent 



Future Perfect 
audivero 
audiveris 
audiverit 

audiverimus 

audiveritis 

audiverint 



Passive Voice 

INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE 

Perfect 
audltus sum x auditus sim x 



auditus es 
auditus est 

auditi sumus 
audit! estis 
auditi sunt 



auditus sis 
auditus sit 

auditi simus 
auditi sitis 
auditi sint 



Pluperfect 



auditus eram * 
auditus eras 
auditus erat 

auditi eramus 
auditi eratis 
auditi erant 



auditus essem * 
auditus esses 
auditus esset 

auditi essemus 
auditi essetis 
auditi essent 



Future Perfect 
auditus ero * 
auditus eris 
auditus erit 

auditi erimus 
auditi eritis 
auditi erunt 



IMPERATIVE 

Singular Plural Singular 

Present audi audite audire 

Future audito auditote auditor 

audito audiunto auditor 



Plural 
audimini 



audiuntor 



Present audire 
Perfect audivisse 
Future auditurus esse 



LNFTNTTIVE 

audiri 

auditus esse 
auditum iri 



PARTICIPLES 
Present audiens, -ientis Perfect auditus, -a, -um 

Future auditurus, -a, -um Gerundive audiendus, -a, -um 



GERUND 
audiendi, -do, -dum, -do 



SUPINE 

auditum, auditu 



1 See footnote 1, p. 94. 



102 



CONJUGATION OF THE VERB 



[§188 



VERBS IN -id OF THE THIRD CONJUGATION 

188. Verbs of the Third Conjugation in -io have certain forms 
of the present stem like the fourth conjugation. They lose the 
i of the stem before a consonant and also before i, I, and g (except 
in the future, the participle, the gerund, and the gerundive). 1 
Verbs of this class are conjugated as follows : — 

Principal Parts : Active, capio, capere, cepi, captum; 
Passive, capior, capi, captus sum. 



Present stem capie- (cape-) P] 


ERFECT STEM C§p- 


Supine stem capt- 


ACTIVE 


VOICE 


PASSIVE VOICE 


INDICATIVE 


SUBJUNCTIVE 


INDICATIVE 


SUBJUNCTIVE 


Present 


Present 


capio, / take 


capiam 


capior 


capiar 


capis, you take 


capias 


caperis (-re) 


capiaris (-re) 


capit, fie takes 


capiat 


capitur 


capiatur 


capimus 


capiamus 


capimur 


capiamur 


capitis 


capiatis 


capimini 


capiSmini 


capiunt 


capiant 


capiuntur 


capiantur 



Imperfect 
capiebam caperem 



Imperfect 
capiebar caperer 



Future 


Future 


capiam 


capiar 


capies 


capieris (-re) 


capiet, etc. 


capietmr, etc. 


Perfect 


Perfect 


cepi ceperim 


captus sum captus sim 


Pluperfect 


Pluperfect 


ceperam cepissem 


captus eram captus essem 


Future Perfect 


Future Perfect 


cepero 


captus ero 



1 This is a practical working rule. The actual explanation of the forms of such 
verbs is not fully understood. 



§§ 188-190] 

Active Voice 

Present 
Singular Plural 
cape capite 

Future 

capito capitote 
capito capiunto 



Present caper e 
Perfect cepisse 
Future capturus esse 



Present capiens, -ientis 
Future capturus, -a, -um 

GERUND 
capiendi, -do, -dum, -do 



DEPONENT VERBS 

Passive Voice 

IMPERATIVE 



103 





Present 


Singular 




Plural 


capere 




capimini 




Future 


capitor 








capitor 




capiuntor 


INFINITIVE 






capi 






captus esse 




captum 


Iri 





PARTICIPLES 

Perfect captus, -a, -um 

Gerundive capiendus, -a, -um 

SUPINE 
captum, -tii 



Parallel Forms 

189. Many verbs have more than one set of forms, of which 
only one is generally found in classic use : — 

lavo, lavare or lavSre, wash (see § 211. e). . 
seated, scatere or scat&re, gush forth. 
ludifico, -are, or ludificor, -an, mock. 
fulg5, fulg&re, or fulgeo, fulgere, shine. 



DEPONENT VERBS 



190. Deponent Verbs have the forms of the Passive Voice, 
with an active or reflexive signification : — 

C First conjugation : miror, mirari, miratus, admire. 
Principal I Second conjugation : vereor, vereri, veritus, fear. 



Parts 



IOcUUILU. UUllj u^auiuui ; vcicui, vcicii, vciiuus, ,/ou/. 
Third conjugation : sequor, seqiri, secutus, follow. 
Fourth conjugation : partior, partiri, partitus, share. 



104 



CONJUGATION OF THE VERB 



[§190 



INDICATIVE 



Pres. miror 

mlraris (-re) 
miratur 

mlramur 
miramini 
mlrantur 

Impf. mlrabar 
Fut. mirabor 
Perf. miratus sum 
Plup. miratus eram 
F. P. miratus ero 



vereor 
vereris (-re) 
veretur 

veremur 
veremini 
verentur 

verebar 
verebor 
veritus sum 
veritus eram 
veritus ero 



sequor 
sequeris (-re) 
sequitur 

sequimur 
sequimini 
sequuntur 

sequgbar 
sequar 
sectitus sum 
secutus eram 
sectitus ero 



partior 
partiris (-re) 
partitur 

partimur 
partimirii 
partiuntur 

partiebar 
partiar 
partitus sum 
partitus eram 
partitus ero 



Pres. . mirer 
Impf. mlrarer 
Perf. miratus sim 
Plup. miratus essem 



SUBJUNCTIVE 



verear 
vererer 
veritus sim 
veritus essem 



sequar 
sequerer 
secutus sim 
secutus essem 



partiar 
partirer 
partitus sim 
partitus essem 



Pres. mirare 
Fut. mlrator 



IMPERATIVE 



verere 
veretor 



sequere 
sequitor 



partire 
partitor 



INFINITIVE 

Pres. mirari vereri sequi partiri 

Perf. miratus esse veritus esse secutus esse partitus esse 

Fut. mlraturus esse veritiirus esse secuturus esse partltiirus esse 



PARTICIPLES 

Pres. mlrans verens sequ§ns 

Fut. mlraturus veritiirus secuturus 

Perf. miratus veritus secutus 

Ger. mlrandus verendus sequendus 



partiens 
partlturus 
partitus 
partiendus 



GERUND 
mirandi, -6, etc. verendi, etc. sequendi, etc. 



partiendi, etc. 



SUPINE 
miratum, -tu veritum, -tu secutum, -tu 



partitum, -tu 



§§ 190, 191] DEPONENT VERBS 105 

a. Deponents .have the participles of both voices : — 

sequens, following. secuturus, about to follow. 

secutus, having followed. sequendus, to be followed. 

b. The perfect participle generally has an active sense, but in verbs 
otherwise deponent it is often passive : as, mercatus, bought ; adeptus, gained 
(or having gained}. 

c. The future infinitive is always in the active form : thus, sequor has 
secuturus (-a, -um) esse (not secutum iri). 

d. The gerundive, being passive in meaning, is found only in transitive 
verbs, or intransitive verbs used impersonally : — 

hoc confitendum est, this must be acknowledged. 
moriendum est omnibus, all must die. 

e» Most deponents are intransitive or reflexive in meaning, correspond- 
ing to what in Greek is called the Middle Voice (§156. a. n.). 

/• Some deponents are occasionally used in a passive sense : as, criminor, 
/ accuse, or / am accused. 

g. About twenty verbs have an active meaning in both active and 
passive forms : as, mereo or mereor, / deserve, 

191. More than half of all deponents are of the First Conju- 
gation, and all of these are regular. The following deponents 
are irregular : — 

adsentior, -iri, adsensus, assent obliviscor, -I, oblitus, forget. 

apiscor, (-ip-), -I, aptus (-eptus) , get. opperior, -iri, oppertus, await. 

defetiscor, -I, -fessus, faint. ordior, -iri, orsus, begin. 

expergiscor, -I, -perrectus, rouse. orior, -iri, ortus (oriturus), rise (3d 
experior, -iri, expertus, try. conjugation in most forms), 

fateor, -eri, fassus, confess. paciscor, -i, pactus, bargain. 

fruor, -I, fructus (fruitus), enjoy. patior (-petior), -l, passus (-pessus), 
fungor, -I, functus, fulfil. suffer. 

gradior (-gredior), -i, gressus, step. -plector, -I, -plexus, clasp. 

irascor, -I, Iratus, be angry. proficiscor, -l, profectus, set out. 

labor, -i, lapsus, fall. queror, -I, questus, complain. 

loquor, -I, locutus, speak. reor, reri, ratus, think. 

metior, -iri, mensus, measure. revertor, -i, reversus, return. 

-miniscor, -i, -mentus, think. ringor, -i, rictus, snarl. 

morior, -i (-iri), mortuus (moriturus), d^e. sequor, -i, secutus, follow. 

nanciscor, -i, nactus (nanctus), find. tueor, -eri, tuitus (tutus), defend. 

nascor, -i, natus, be born. ulciscor, -i, ultus, avenge. 

nitor, -i, nisus (nixus), strive. utor, -i, usus, use, employ. 

Note. — The deponent comperior, -iri, compertus, is rarely found for comperio, -ire. 
Revertor, until the time of Augustus, had regularly the active forms in the perfect sys- 
tem, reverti, reverteram, etc. 



106 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB [§§191-194 

a. The following deponents have no supine stem : — . 
devertor, -ti, turn aside (to lodge). medeor, -eri, heal. 

diffiteor, -eri, deny. reminiscor, -I, call to mind. 

fatiscor, -I, gape. vescor, -I, feed upon. 

liquor, -I, melt (intrans.). 
Note. — Deponents are really passive (or middle) verbs whose active voice has 
disappeared. There is hardly one that does not show signs of having been used in 
the active at some period of the language. 

Semi-Deponents 

192. A few verbs having no perfect stem are regular in the 
present, but appear in the tenses of completed action as deponents. 
These are called Semi-deponents. They are : — 

audeo, audere, ausus, dare. gaudeS, gaudere, gavisus, rejoice. 

fido, fidere, fisus, trust. soled, solere, solitus, be wont. 

a. From audeo there is an old perfect snbjnnctive ausim. The form sodes 
(for si audes), an thou wilt, is frequent in the dramatists and rare elsewhere. 

b. The active forms vapulo, vapulare, be flogged, and veneo, venire, be sold 
(contracted from venum ire, go to sale), have a passive meaning, and are 
sometimes called neutral passives. To these may be added fieri, to be made 
(§ 204), and exsulare, to be banished (live in exile); cf. accedere, to be added. 

Note. — The following verbs are sometimes found as semi-deponents: iur5, iurare, 
iuratus, swear; nubo, nubere, nupta, marry ; place5, placere, placitus, please. 

THE PERIPHRASTIC CONJUGATIONS 

193. A Periphrastic form, as the name indicates, is a " roundabout way of speak- 
ing." In the widest sense, all verb-phrases consisting of participles and sum are Peri- 
phrastic Forms. The Present Participle is, however, rarely so used, and the Perfect 
Participle with sum is included in the regular conjugation (amatus sum, eram, etc.). 
Hence the term Periphrastic Conjugation is usually restricted to verb-phrases con- 
sisting of the Future Active Participle or the Gerundive with sum. 

Note. — The Future Passive Infinitive, as amatum m, formed from the infinitive 
passive of e5, go, used impersonally with the supine in -um, may also be classed as a 
periphrastic form (§ 203. a) . 

194. There are two Periphrastic Conjugations, known respec- 
tively as the First (or Active) and the Second (or Passive). 

a. The First Periphrastic Conjugation combines the Future Active 
Participle with the forms of sum, and denotes & future or intended action. 

b. The Second Periphrastic Conjugation combines the Gerundive with 
the forms of sum, and denotes obligation, necessity, or propriety. 

c. The periphrastic forms are inflected regularly throughout the Indica- 
tive and Subjunctive and in the Present and Perfect Infinitive. 



195, 196] 



THE PERIPHRASTIC CONJUGATION 



107 



195. The First Periphrastic Conjugation : ■ 



Present 

Imperfect 

Future 

Perfect 

Pluperfect 

Future Perfect 

Present 
Imperfect 
Perfect 
Pluperfect 

Present 
Perfect 



INDICATIVE 
amaturus sum, 1 am about to love 
amaturus eram, / was about to love 
amaturus ero, / shall be about to love 
amaturus fui, I have been, was, about to love 
amaturus fueram, / had been about to love 
amaturus f uero, / shall have been about to love 

SUBJUNCTIVE 
amaturus sim 
amaturus essem 
amaturus fuerim 
amaturus fuissem 

INFINITIVE 

amaturus esse, to be about to love 
amaturus fuisse, to have been about to love 



So in the other conjugations : — 

Second : moniturus sum, I am about to advise. 
Third : tectums sum, I oim about to cover. 
Fourth : auditurus sum, I am about to hear. 
Third (in -io) : capturus sum, I am about to take. 

196. The Second Periphrastic Conjugation : — 



Present 

Imperfect 

Future 

Perfect 

Pluperfect 

Future Perfect 



Present 
Imperfect 
Perfect 
Pluperfect 



Present 
Perfect 



INDICATIVE 
amandus sum, / am to be, must be, loved 
amandus eram, I was to be, had to be, loved 
amandus ero, 1 shall have to be loved 
amandus fui, / was to be, had to be, loved 
amandus fueram, I had had to be loved 
amandus fuero, / shall have had to be loved 

SUBJUNCTIVE 
amandus sim 
amandus essem 
amandus fuerim 
amandus fuissem 

INFINITIVE 
amandus esse, to have to be loved 
amandus fuisse, to have had to be loved 



108 



CONJUGATION OF THE VERB 



[§§ 196-198 



So in the other conjugations : — 

Second : monendus sum, I am to be, must be, advised. 
Third : tegendus sum, I am to be, must be, covered. 
Fourth : audiendus sum, I am to be, must be, heard. 
Third (in -io) : capiendus sum, I am to be, must be, taken. 






IRREGULAR VERBS 

197. Several verbs add some of the personal endings of the 
present system directly to the root, 1 or combine two verbs in 
their inflection. These are called Irregular Verbs. They are 
sum, volo, fero, edo, do, eo, queo, fio, and their compounds. 

Sum has already been inflected in § 170. 

198. Sum is compounded without any change of inflection with 
the prepositions ab, ad, de, in, inter, ob, prae, pro (earlier form prod), 
sub, super. 

a. In the compound prosum (help), pro retains its original d before e : 

Principal Parts : prosum, prodesse, prdfui, profuturus 





INDICATIVE 


SUBJUNCTIVE 




Singular 


Plural 


Singular Plural 


Present 


prosum 


prosumus 


prosim proslmus 




prodes 


prodestis 


prosis prosltis 




prodest 


prosunt 


prosit prosint 


Imperfect 


prOderam 


proderamus 


prodessem prodessemus 


Future 


prodero 


proderimus 





Perfect 


profm 


profuimus 


profuerim profuerimus 


Pluperfect 


profueram 


profueramus 


profuissem profuissemus 


Fut. Perf. 


profuero 


profuerimus 






IMPERATIVE 
Present prodes, prodeste Future prodesto, prodestote 

INFINITIVE 

Present prodesse Perfect profuisse 

Future profuturus esse 

PARTICIPLE 
Future profuturus 

1 These are athematic verbs, see § 174. 2. 



198, 199] 



IRREGULAR VERBS 



109 



b. Sum is also compounded with the adjective potis, or pote, able, making 
the verb possum (be able, can). Possum is inflected as follows : — i 

Principal Parts : possum, posse, potui 2 





INDICATIVE 


SUBJUNCTIVE 




Singular 


Plural 


Singular 


Plural 


Present 


possum 


possumus 


possim 


possimus 




potes 


potestis 


possis 


possitis 




potest 


possunt 


possit 


possint 


Imperfect 


poteram 


poteramus 


possem 


possemus 


Future 


potero 


poterimus 


■ - 


-, 


Perfect 


potui 


potuimus 


potuerim 


potuerimus 


Pluperfect 


potueram 


potueramus 


potuissem 


potuissemus 


Fut. Perf. 


potuero 


potuerimus 

INFINITIVE 







Pres. posse Perf. potuisse 

PARTICIPLE 

Pres. poteus (adjective), powerful 



199. 



volo, nolo, malo 



Principal 
Parts : 



void, velle, volui, — 
nolo, nolle, nolui, — 
malo, malle, malui, 



Note. — N515 and maid are compounds of volo 
volo from mage-vol5. 



, be willing, will, wish 
■, be unwilling, will not 
— , be more willing, prefer 

Nolo is for ne-volo, and malo for ma- 



Present 



Imperfect 
Future 
Perfect 
Pluperfect 
Fut. Perf. 



volo 

vis 3 

vult (volt) 

volumus 

vultis (voltis) 

volunt ' 

volebam 

volam, voles, etc, 

volui 

volueram 

voluero 



INDICATIVE 
nolo 
non vis 
non vult 
nolumus 
non vultis 
nolunt 
nolebam 

nolam, noles, etc. 
nolui 
nolueram 
noluero 



malo 

mavis 

mavult 

malumus 

mavultis 

malunt 

malebam 

malam, males, etc. 

malui 

malueram 

maluero 



x The forms potis sum, pote sum, etc. occur in early writers. Other early forms are 
potesse ; possiem, -es, -et ; poterint, potisit (for possit) ; potestur and possitur (used with 
a passive infinitive, cf. § 205. a). 

2 Potui is from an obsolete f pot ere. 8 Vis is from a different root. 



110 



CONJUGATION OF THE VERB 









SUBJUNCTIVE 


Present 


velim, -is, 


-it, 




nolim 




velimus, - 


itis, 


-int 




Imperfect 


vellem, 1 -< 


is, -et, 


nollem 




vellemus, 


-etis 


, -ent 




Perfect 


voluerim 






noluerim 


Pluperfect 


voluissem 






noluisseni 








IMPERATIVE 


Present 









noli, nolite 


Future 









nolito, etc. 








INFINITIVE 


Present 


velle 1 






nolle 


Perfect 


voluisse 






noluisse 








PARTICIPLES 


Present 


volens, -entis 




nolens, -entis 



[§§ 199, 200 

malim 

mallem 

maluerim 
maluissem 



I 



malle 
maluisse ^ 



Note. — The forms sis for si vis, sultis for si vultis, and the forms nevis (nS-vis) { 
nSvolt, mavolo, mavolunt, mavelim, ma vellem, etc., occur in early writers. 



200, 



Fero, bear, carry, endure 2 

Principal Parts : fero, ferre, 3 tuli, latum 

Present stem fer- Perfect stem tul- Supine stem lat- 





ACTIVE 


PASSIVE 






INDICATIVE 




Present 


fero 


ferimus 


feror ferimur 




fers 


fertis 


f err is (-re) ferimini 




fert 


ferunt 


fertur feruntur 


Imperfect 


ferebam 




ferebar 


Future 


feram 




ferar 


Perfect 


tuli 




latus sum 


Pluperfect 


tuleram 




latus eram 


Future Perfect 


tulero 




latus ero 



i Vellem is for fvel-sem, and velle for fvel-se (cf. es-se), the s being assimilated to 
the 1 preceding. 

2 Fero has two independent stems : fer- in the present system, and tul- (for tol-) in 
the perfect from tol, root of tollo. The perfect tetull occurs in Plautus. In the parti- 
ciple the root is weakened to tl-, latum standing for f tlatum (cf . t\t]t6s) . 

3 Ferre, ferrem, are for ffer-se, ffer-sem (cf. es-se, es-sem), s being assimilated to pre- 
ceding r ; or ferre, ferrem, may be for fferese, fferesem (see § 15. 4). 



200] 



IEEEGULAR VERBS 



111 



Active 



Passive 







SUBJUNCTIVE 




Present 


feram 




ferar 


Imperfect 


ferrem 1 




ferrer 


Perfect 


tulerim 




latus sim 


Pluperfect 


tulissem 


IMPERATIVE 


latus essem 


Present 


fer 


ferte 


ferre ferimini 


Future 


ferto 


fertote 


fertor 




ferto 


ferunto 

INFINITIVE 


fertor feruntor 


Present 


ferre 




ferri 


Perfect 


tulisse 




latus esse 


Future 


laturus esse 


PARTICIPLES 


latum Iri 


Present 


ferens, -entis 


Perfect latus 


Future 


laturus 




Gerundive ferendus 


GERUND 




SUPINE 




rendi, -do, -dum, -do 


latum, latu 





a. The compounds of fero, conjugated like the simple verb, are the 
following : — 

ad- 

au-, ab- 
con- 
dis-, di- 
ex-, e- 
in- 
ob- 
re- 
sub- 

Note. — In these compounds the phonetic changes in the preposition are especially 
to be noted, ab- and au- are two distinct prepositions with the same meaning. 



adfero 


adferre 


attull 


allatum 


aufero 


auferre 


abstuli 


ablatum 


confero 


conferre 


contuli 


collatum 


differo 


differre 


distull 


dilatum 


effero 


efferre 


extuli 


elatum 


infero 


inferre 


intuli 


illatum 


offero 


offerre 


obtull 


oblatum 


refero 


referre 


rettuli 


relatum 


suffero 


sufferre 


sustull 2 


sublatum 2 



1 See note 3, page 110. 

2 Sustuli and sublatum also supply the perfect and participle of the verb tollo. 



112 



CONJUGATION OF THE VERB 



[§201 



201. Edo, edere, edi, esum, eat, is regular of the third conjuga- 
tion, but has also an archaic present subjunctive and some alter- 
native forms directly from the root (ed), without the thematic 
vowel. These are in full-faced type. 



Present 



Imperfect 



ACTIVE 
INDICATIVE 



edo, edis (es 1 ), edit (est) 
edimus, editis (estis), edunt 
edebam, edebas, etc. 



SUBJUNCTIVE 

Present edam (edim), edas (edis), edat (edit) 

edamus (edimus), edatis (editis), edant (edint) 

Imperfect ederem, ederes (esses), ederet (esset) 

ederemus (essemus), ederetis (essetis), ederent (essent) 





IMPERATIVE 




Singular 






Plural 


Present 


ede (es) 






edite (este) 


Future 


edito (esto) 
edito (esto) 






editote (estote) 
edunto 


INFINITIVE 






PARTICIPLES 


Present 


edere (esse) 






Present edens, -entis 


Perfect 


edisse 






Future esurus 2 


Future 


esurus esse 










GERUND 






edendi, 


-do, 


-dum, -do 




! 


SUPINE 






esum, 


esu : 


i 



a* In the Passive the following irregular forms occur in the third per- 
son singular : Present Indicative estur, Imperfect Subjunctive essetur. 



1 In 6s etc. the e is long. In the corresponding forms of sum, e is short. The differ- 
ence in quantity between Sdo and es etc. depends upon inherited vowel variation (§ 17. a). 

2 Old forms are essurus and sugine essum. 



202] IRREGULAR VERBS 113 

202. The irregular verb do, give, is conjugated as follows : — 

Principal Parts : do, dare, dedi, datum 
Present Stem da- Perfect Stem ded- Supine Stem dat- 





ACTIVE 


PASSIVE 




INDICATIVE 




Present 


do damns 


damnr 




das datis 


daris (-re) damini 




dat dant 


datnr dantnr 


Imperfect 


dabam 


dabar 


Future 


dabo 


dabor 


Perfect 


dedi 


datus sum 


Pluperfect 


dederam 


datus eram 


Future Perfect dedero 


datus ero 




SUBJUNCTIVE 




Present 


dem, des, det, etc. 


, deris (-re), detur, etc. 


Imperfect 


darem 


darer 


Perfect 


dederim 


datus sim 


Pluperfect 


dedissem 

IMPERATIVE 


datus essem 


Present 


da date 


dare damini 


Future 


dato datote 


f\ ^ t.AT* 




dato dan to 


dator dantor 




INFINITIVE 




Present 


dare 


dari 


Perfect 


dedisse 


datus esse 


Future 


daturus esse 

PARTICIPLES 


datum Iri 


Present 


dans, dantis Perfect 


datus 


Future 


daturus Gerundive dandus 




GERUND 






dandi, -do, -dnm, -do 






SUPINE 






datum, datu 





For compounds of do, see § 209. a. N. 



114 



CONJUGATION OF THE VERB 



[§ 203 



203. 

Present 

Imperfect 

Future 



Perfect 
Pluperfect 
Future Perfect 



Eo, go. 1 Principal Parts : eo, ire, ii (ivi), itum 

SUBJUNCTIVE 

earn, eas, eat 



INDICATIVE 

eo, is, it 
Imus, itis, eunt 
ibam, ibas, ibat 
Ibamus, ibatis, ibant 
Ibo, ibis, ibit 
Ibimus, ibitis, Ibunt 
ii (ivi) 

ieram (Iveram) 
iero (Ivero) 

IMPERATIVE 
Present I Future 

ite 



eamus, eatis, eant 
irem, ires, iret 
iremus, iretis, Trent 



ierim (Iverirn) 
issem (lvissern) 



Ito, Itote 
Ito, eunto 



Future iturus esse 



INFINITIVE 
Present Ire Perfect isse (ivisse) 

PARTICIPLES 
Present iens, gen. euntis Future iturus Gerundive eundum 

GERUND eundi, -do, -dum, -do SUPINE itum, itu 



a. 

sitive. 

Pres. 



The compounds adeo, approach, ineo, enter, and some others, are tran- 
They are inflected as follows in the passive : — 

INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE 



adeor Impf. adibar 

adlris Fut. adibor 

aditur Perf. aditus sum 

adimur Plup. aditus erain 

adlmini F. P. aditus ero 
adeuntur 

infin. adlri aditus esse 



Pres. 
Impf. 
Perf. 
Plup. 



adear 
adirer 
aditus sim 
aditus essem 



PART, aditus adeundus 



Thus inflected, the forms of eo are used impersonally in the third person 
singular of the passive : as, itum est (§ 208. d). The infinitive in is used with 
the supine in -urn to make the future infinitive passive (§193. n.). The verb 
veneo, be sold (i.e. yenum eo, go to sale), has also several forms in the passive. 

b. In the perfect system of e5 the forms with v are very rare in the simple 
verb and unusual in the compounds. 

c, ii before s is regularly contracted to l: as, isse. 

1 The root of e5 is ei (weak form i). This ei becomes i except before a, o, and u, 
where it becomes e (cf . e5, earn, eunt) . The strong form of the root, I, is shortened 
before a vowel or final -t ; the weak form, I, appears in itum and iturus. 



§§ 203, 204] 



IRREGULAR VERBS 



115 



d* The compound ambio is inflected regularly like a verb of the fourth 
conjugation. But it has also ambibat in the imperfect indicative. 
e. Pro with e5 retains* its original d : as, prode5, pr5dis, prodit. 

204. Facio, facere, feci, factum, make, is regular. But it has im- 
perative fac in the active, and, besides the regular forms, the future 
perfect faxo, perfect subjunctive faxim. The passive of facio is — 

fio, fieri, factus sum, be made or become. 
The present system of fio is regular of the fourth conjugation, 
but the subjunctive imperfect is fierem, and the infinitive fieri. 

Note. — The forms in brackets are not used in good prose. 



Present 

Imperfect 
Future 
Perfect 
Pluperfect 
Future Perfect 



Present fieri 



INDICATIVE 
fio, fis, fit 

[fimus], [fitis], fiunt 
fiebam, fiebas, etc. 
fiam, fies, etc. 
factus sum 
factus eram 
factus ero 

IMPERATIVE 

[fi, fite, fito, 



-] 1 



INFINITIVE 
Perfect factus esse 



SUBJUNCTIVE 
flam, fias, fiat 
fiamus, fiatis, fiant 
fierem, fieres, etc. 

factus sim 
factus essem 



Future factum iri 



PARTICIPLES 
Perfect factus Gerundive faciendus 

a. Most compounds of facio with prepositions weaken a to l in the present 
stem and to e in the supine stem, and are inflected regularly like verbs in -io : — 
cSnficio, cdnficere, confeci, confectum, finish. 
conficior, confici, confectus. 

b* Other compounds retain a, and have -fio in the passive : as, benefacio, 
-facere, -feci, -factum ; passive benefio, -fieri, -factus, benefit. These retain the 
accent of the simple verb : as, bene-fa'cis (§ 12. a, Exc.'). 

c. A few isolated forms of fio occur in other compounds : — 

confit, it happens, confiunt ; c5nfiat ; confieret, confident ; confieri. 

defit, it lacks, defiunt ; defiet ; defiat ; defieri. 

effieri, to be effected. 

Infio, begin (to speak), infit. 

interfiat, let him perish ; interfieri, to perish. 

superfit, it remains over ; superfiat, superfieri. 

1 The imperative is rarely found, and then only in early writers. 



116 



CONJUGATION OF THE VERB 



[§206 



DEFECTIVE VERBS 

205. Some verbs have lost the Present System, and use only 
tenses of the Perfect, in which they are inflected regularly. 
These are — 

memini, 3 / remember 



coepi, 1 I began 


odi, 2 / hate 




INDICATIVE 


Perfect 


coepi odi 


Pluperfect 


coeperam oderam 


Future Perfect 


coepero odero 




SUBJUNCTIVE 


Perfect 


coeperim oderim 


Pluperfect 


coepi ssem odisserc 



memini 

memineram 

meminero 



memmerim 
meminissem 



IMPERATIVE 



memento 
mementote 



Perfect 
Future 



INFINITIVE 



coepisse 
coepturus esse 



odisse 
osurus esse 



memmisse 



Perfect 
Future 



PARTICIPLES 
coeptus, begun osus, hating or hated 

coepturus osurus, likely to hate 



a. The passive of coepi is often used with the passive infinitive : as, 
coeptus sum vocari, / began to be called, but coepi vocare, / began to call. 
For the present system incipio is used. 

Note. — Early and rare forms are coepid, coepiam, coeperet, coepere. 

b. The Perfect, Pluperfect, and Future Perfect of odi and memini have 
the meanings of a Present, Imperfect, and Future respectively : — 

odi, I hate ; oderam, I hated (ivas hating) ; odero, I shall hate. 

Note 1. — A present participle meminens is early and late. 

Note 2. — Nov! and c5nsuevi (usually referred to n5sco and consuesco) are often used 
in the sense of I know (have learned) and / am accustomed (have become accustomed) 
as preteritive verbs. Many other verbs are occasionally used in the same way (see 
476. n.). 



1 Root ap (as in apiscor) with co(n-). 

2 Root od, as in odium. 



8 Root men, as in mens. 



§206] DEFECTIVE VERBS 117 

206. Many verbs are found only in the Present System. Such 
are maereo, -ere, be sorrowful (cf. maestus, sad); ferio, -Ire, strike. 

In many the simple verb is incomplete, but the missing parts 
occur in its compounds : as, vado, vadere, in-vasi, in-vasum. 

Some verbs occur very commonly, but only in a few forms : — 

a. Aio, / say : — 

aiunt 

— , aiant 



INDIC. 


PPtES. 


aio, ais, 1 ait ; , - 




Impf. 


aiebam, 2 aiebas, etc. 


SUBJV. 
IMPER. 


Pres. 


, aias, aiat ; 

al (rare) 


PART. 




aiens 



The vowels a and i are pronounced separately (a-is, a-it) except some- 
times in old or colloquial Latin. Before a vowel, one i stands for two (see 
§ 6. c): — thus aio was pronounced ai-yo and was sometimes written arid. 

b. Inquam, / say, except in poetry, is used only in direct quotations 
(cf. the English quoth). 

indic. Pres. inquam, inquis, inquit; inquimus, inquitis (late), inquiunt 

Impf. , , inquiebat ; , , 

Fut. , inquies, inquiet ; , , 

Perf. inquii, inquisti, ; , , 

imper. Pres. inque 

Fut. inquito 

The only common forms are inquam, inquis, inquit, inquiunt, and the 
future inquies, inquiet. 

c. The deponent fari, to speak, has the following forms : — 

indic. Pres. , , fatur ; , , fantur 

Fut. f abor, , f abitur ; , , 

Perf. , , fatus est ; , , fatl sunt 

Plup. fatus eram, , fatus erat; , , 

imper. Pres. fare 

inttn. Pres. fari 

part. Pres. fans, fantis, etc. (in singular) 

Perf. fatus (having spoken) 

Ger. fandus (to be spoken of) 

gerund, gen. fandi, otfrLfando supine fatu 

Several forms compounded with the prepositions ex, prae, pro, inter, 
occur : as, praefatur, praefamur, affarl, pr5fatus, interfatur, etc. The com- 
pound infans is regularly used as a noun (child). Infandus, nefandus, are 
used as adjectives, unspeakable, abominable. 

1 The second singular ais with the interrogative -ne is often written ain. 

2 An old imperfect aibam, aibas, etc. (dissyllabic) is sometimes found. 



118 



CONJUGATION OF THE VERB 



[§206 



d. Queo, / can, nequeo, / cannot, are conjugated like eo. They are rarely 
used except in the present. Queo is regularly accompanied by a negative. 
The forms given below occur, those in full-faced type in classic prose. 
The Imperative, Gerund, and Supine are wanting. 



INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE 


INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE 


Present 


Present 




qued queam 


neque5 (non que5) 


nequeam 


quis queas 


nequis 


nequeas 


quit queat 


nequit 


nequeat 


qulmus queamus 


nequlmus 


nequeamus 


quitis 


nequitis 





queunt queant 


nequeunt 


nequeant 


Imperfect 


Imperfect 




quibam 





nequirem 


quibat quiret 


nequibat 


nequiret 


qulrent 


nequibant 


nequlrent 


Future 


Future 




qulbo 


nequlbit 




quibunt 


nequibunt 




Perfect 


Perfect 




quivi 


nequivl 


nequiverim 





nequlsti 





quivit quiverit (-ierit) 


nequivit (nequiit) 


nequiverit 


quiverunt (-ere) quierint 


nequiverunt (-quiere) 


nequiverint 


Pluperfect 


Pluperfect 





nequiverat (-ierat) 


nequivisset (-quisset) 


quivissent 


nequiverant (-ierant) 
INFINITIVE 


nequissent 


quire qulsse 


nequire 
PARTICIPLES 


nequivisse (-qulsse) 


quiens 


nequiens, nequeuntes 





Note. — A few passive forms are used with passive infinitives : as, qultur, queuntur, 
quitus sum, queatur, queantur, nequitur, nequitum ; but none of theseoccurs in classic prose. 



§§ 206, 207] 



IMPERSONAL VERBS 



119 



e. Quaeso, / ask, beg (original form of quaero), has — 

indic. Pres. quaeso, quaesumus 

Note. — Other forms of quaeso are found occasionally in early Latin. For the per- 
fect system (quaesivi, etc.), see quaero (§211. d). 

/. Ovare, to triumph, has the following : — 
indic. Pres. ovas, ovat 
subjv. Pres. ovet 

Impf. ovaret 
part. ovans, ovaturus, ovatus 

ger. ovandi 

g. A few verbs are found chiefly in the Imperative : — 

Pres. singular salve, plural salvete, Fut. salveto, hail ! (from sal- 
vus, safe and sound). An infinitive salvere and the indica- 
tive forms salveo, salvetis, salvebis, are rare. 

Pres. singular ave (or have), plural avete, Fut. avetS, hail or fare- 
well. An infinitive avere also occurs. 

Pres. singular cedo, plural cedite (cette), give, tell. 

Pres. singular apage, begone (properly a Greek word). 



IMPERSONAL VERBS 



207. Many verbs, from their meaning, appear only in the third 
person singular, the infinitive, and the gerund. These are called 
Impersonal Verbs, as having no personal subject. 1 The passive 
of many intransitive verbs is used in the same way. 



CONJ. I 


ii 


in 


IV 


Pass. Conj. i 


it is plain 


it is allowed 


it chances 


it results 


it is fought 


constat 


licet 


accidit 


evenit 


pugnatur 


constabat 


licebat 


accidebat 


eveniebat 


ptignabatur 


constabit 


licebit 


accidet 


eveniet 


pugnabitur 


constitit 


licuit, -itum est 


accidit 


evenit 


piignatum est 


cSnstiterat 


licuerat 


acciderat 


evenerat 


piignatum erat 


constiterit 


licuerit 


accident 


evenerit 


ptignatum erit 


constet 


liceat 


accidat 


eveniat 


piignetur 


constaret 


liceret 


accideret 


eveniret 


ptignaretur 


constiterit 


licuerit 


accident 


evenerit 


ptignatum sit 


constitisset 


licuisset 


accidisset 


evenisset 


piignatum esset 


constare 


licere 


accidere 


evenire 


pugnari 


constitisse 


licuisse 


accidisse 


evgnisse 


piignatum esse 


-staturum esse 


-iturum esse 





-turum esse 


piignatum irl 



1 With impersonal verbs the word it is used in English, having usually no repre- 
sentative in Latin, though id, hoc, illud, are often used nearly in the same way. 



120 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB [§208 

208. Impersonal Verbs may be classified as follows: — 

a. Verbs expressing the operations of nature and the time of day : — 
vesperascit (inceptive, § 263. 1), it grows late. ningit, it snows. 
luciscit hoc, it is getting light. fulgurat, it lightens. 
grandinat, it hails. tonat, it thunders. 
pluit, it rains. rSrat, the dew falls. 

Note. — In these no subject is distinctly thought of. Sometimes, however, the verb 
is used personally with the name of a divinity as the subject : as, Iuppiter tonat, Jupiter 
thunders. In poetry other subjects are occasionally used: as, fundae saxa pluunt, the 
slings rain stones. 

b. Verbs of feeling, where the person who is the proper subject becomes 
the object, as being himself affected by the feeling expressed in the verb 
(§354.6): — 

miseret, it grieves. paenitet (poenitet), it repents. 

piget, it disgusts. pudet, it shames. 

taedet, it wearies. 

miseret me, I pity (it distresses me) ; pudet me, I am ashamed. 

Note. — Such verbs often have also a passive form : as, misereor, I pity (am moved 
to pity) ; and occasionally other parts: as, paeniturus (as from fpaenio), paenitendus, 
pudendus, pertaesum est, pigitum est. 

c. Verbs which have a phrase or clause as their subject (cf. §§ 454, 
569.2): — 

accidit, contingit, evenit, obtingit, obvenit, fit, it happens. 

libet, it pleases. delectat, iuvat, it delights. 

licet, it is permitted. oportet, it is fitting, ought. 

certum est, it is resolved. necesse est, it is needful. 

constat, it is clear. praestat, it is better. 

placet, it seems good (pleases). interest, refert, it concerns. 

videtur, it seems, seems good. vacat, there is leisure. 

decet, it is becoming. restat, superest, it remains. 

Note. — Many of these verbs may be used personally; as, vac5, I have leisure. 
Libet and licet have also the passive forms libitum (licitum) est etc. The participles 
libens and licens are used as adjectives. 

d* The passive of intransitive verbs is very often used impersonally (see 
synopsis in § 207): — 

ventum est, they came (there was coming). 

pugnatur, there is fighting (it is fought). 

Itur, some one goes (it is gone). 

parcitur mini, I am spared (it is spared to me, see § 372). 

Note. — The impersonal use of the passive proceeds from its original reflexive (or 
middle) meaning, the action being regarded as accomplishing itself (compare the 
French cela sefait). 



§§ 209, 210] classified lists of verbs 121 

Classified Lists of Veebs 
First Conjugation 

209. There are about 360 simple verbs of the First Conjuga- 
tion, most of them formed directly on a noun- or adjective-stem : 

arm5, arm (arma, arms); caeco, to blind (caecus, blind); exsulo, be an exile 
(exsul, an exile) (§ 259). 

Their conjugation is usually regular, like amo ; though of many only a few 
forms are found in use. 

a. The following verbs form their Perfect and Supine stems irregularly. 
Those marked * have also regular forms. 

crepo, crepui (-crepavi), -crepit-, resound,. plico, *-plicui, *-plicit-, fold. 

cubo, *cubui, -cubit-, lie down. poto, potavi, *p5t-, drink. 

do, dare, dedi, dat-, give (da). seco, secui, sect-, cut. 

dom5, domui, domit-, subdue. sono, sonui, sonit-, 1 sound. 

fried, fricui, *frict-, rub. sto, steti, -stat- (-stit-), stand. 

iuvd (ad-iuvo), iuvi, iut-, 1 help. tono, tonui, *-tonit-, thunder. 

micd, micui, , glitter. veto, vetui, vetit-, forbid. 

neco, *necui, necat- (-nect-), kill. 2 

Note. — Compounds of these verbs have the following forms: — 

crepo : con-crepui, dis-crepul or -crepavi ; in-crepui or -crepavi. 

do : circum-, inter-, pessum-, satis-, super-, venum-do, -dedi, -dat-, of the first con- 
jugation. Other compounds belong to the root im.A,put, and are of the third 
conjugation: as, condo, condere, condidi, conditum. 

mico: di-micdvi, -inicdt-; e-micui, -micat-. 

plied: re-, sub- (sup-), multi-plied, -plicavi, -plicat-; ex-plico (unfold), -ui, -it-; 
(explain), -dvi, -at-; im-plico, -avi (-ui), -atum (-itum). 

sto: con-sto, -still, (-statiirus) ; ad-, re-std, -stiti, ; ante- (anti-), inter-, super- 

sto, -steti, ; circum-sto, -steti (-stiti), ; prae-sto, -stiti, -stit- (-stat-); 

di-sto, ex-sto, no perfect or supine (future participle ex-staturus). 

Second Conjugation 

210. There are nearly 120 simple verbs of the Second Conju- 
gation, most of them denominative verbs of condition, having a 
corresponding noun and adjective from the same root, and an 
inceptive in -sco (§ 263. 1): — 

caleo, be warm; calor, warmth; calidus, warm; calesco, grow warm. 
timeo, fear; timor, fear; timidus, timid; per-timesco, to take fright. 

1 Future Participle also in -aturus (either in the simple verb or in composition). 

2 Need has regularly necavi, necatum, except in composition. 



122 



CONJUGATION OF THE VERB 



[§§ 210, 211 



a* Most verbs of the second conjugation are inflected like moneo, but 
many lack the supine (as, arceo, ward off; careo, lack; egeo, need; timeo, 
fear), and a number have neither perfect nor supine (as, maereo, be sad). 
b. The following keep e in all the systems : — 
deled, destroy delere delevi 

fle5, weep flere flevi 

neo, sew nere nevi 

vieS, plait viere [vievi] 

com-pleS, Jill up x -plere -plevi 

c* The following show special irregularities : — 
algeS, alsi, be cold. 
ardeS, arsi, arsurus, burn. 
audeS, ausus sum, dare. 
augeS, auxi, auct-, increase. 



deletum 

fletum 

[netum] 

vietum 

-pletum 



caveo, cavi, caut-, care. 
censeo, censui, cens-, value. 
ciedi cm, cit-, excite. 
doceo, docui, doct-, teach. 
faveo, fa vi, faut-, favor. 

ferve5, fervi (ferbui), , glow. 

foveo, fovi, fot-, cherish. 

fulgeo, fulsi, , shine. 

gaudeS, gavisus sum, rejoice. 
haereo, haesi, haes-, cling. 
indulges, indulsi, indult-, indulge. 
iubed, iussi, iuss-, order. 

liqued, licui (liqui), , melt. 

luceS, luxi, , shine. 

Iuge5, luxi, , mourn. 

maneo, mansi, mans-, wait. 
misceo, -cui, mixt- (mist-), mix. 
mordeo, momordi, mors-, bite. 
moveo, movi, mot-, move. 



mulceo, mulsi, muls-, soothe. 
mulgeo, mulsi, muls-, milk. 

(co)niveo, -nivi (-nixi), , wink. 

(ab)ole5, -olevi, -olit-, destroy. 
pended, pependi, -pens-, hang. 
prandeo, prandi, prans-, dine. 
rideo, risi, -ris-, laugh. 
sedeo, sedi, sess-, sit. 
soled, solitus sum, be wont. 

sorbeo, sorbui (sorpsi), , suck. 

spondeo, spopondi, spons-, pledge. 

strideo, stridi, , whiz. 

suadeo, suasi, suas-, urge. 

teneS (-tineS), tenui, -tent-, hold. 

tergeS, tersi, ters-, wipe. 

tondeS, -totondi (-tondi), tSns-, shear. 

torqueo, torsi, tort-, twist. 

torreo, torrui, tost-, roast. 

turgeo, tursi, , swell. 

urgeo, ursi, , urge. 

videS, vidi, vis-, see. 
voveS, vSvi, vot-, vow. 



Third Conjugation 

211. The following lists include most simple verbs of the 
Third Conjugation, classed according to the formation of the Per- 
fect Stem : — 

a. Forming the perfect stem in s (x) (§177. b and note): — 

ango, anxi, , choke. claudS, clausi, claus-, shut. 

carpS, carpsi, carpt-, pluck. cSmS, compsi, cSmpt-, comb, deck. 

cedS, cessi, cess-, yield. coquS, coxi, coct-, cook. 

cingS, cinxi, cinct-, bind. -cutis, -cussT, -cuss-, shake. 

1 And other compounds of -pleo. 






§211] 



THIRD CONJUGATION 



123 



demo, dempsi, dempt-, take away. 

died, dixi, diet-, say. 

dividS, divisi, divis-, divide. 

ducS, duxi, duct-, guide. 

emungS, -munxi, -munct-, clean out. 

figS, fixi, fix-, fix. 

fingS [fig], finxi, Oct-, fashion. 

flecto, flexi, flex-, bend. 

-fligo, -flixi, -flict-, , smite. 

fluo, fluxi, flux-, flow. 

frendS, , fres- (fress-), gnash. 

frigS, frixi, frict-, fry. 

gerS, gessi, gest-, carry. 

iungo, iunxi, iunct-, join. 

laedS, laesi, laes-, hurt. 

-liciS, -lexi, -lect-, entice (elicui, -licit-). 

ludo, lusi, lus-, play. 

merg5, mersi, mers-, plunge. 

mittS, misi, miss-, send. 

nectS [nec], nexi (nexui), nex-, weave. 

nubo, nupsi, nupt-, marry. 

pecto, pexi, pex-, comb. 

pergS, perrexi, perrect-, go on. 

pingS [pig] ? pinxi, pict-, paint. 

plangS [plag], planxi, planet-, beat. 

plaudo, plausi, plaus-, applaud. 

plect5, plexi, plex-, braid. 

premS, pressi, press-, press. 

pr5mo, -mpsi, -mpt-, bring out. 

b. Reduplicated in the perfect (§ 

cadd, cecidi, cas-, fall. 
caed5, cecidi, caes-, cut. 

can5, cecini, , sing. 

curro, cucurri, curs-, run. 

disco [dic], didici, , learn. 

-d5 [dha], -didi, -dit- (as in ab-do, etc., 

with credo, vend5), put. 
fallo, fefelli, fals-, deceive. 
pango [pag], pepigi(-pegi), pact-, fasten, 

fix, bargain. 
pared, peperci (parsi), (parsurus), spare. 



quati5, (-cussi), quass-, shake. 
rado, rasi, ras-, scrape. 
regd, rexi, rect-, rule. 

repo, repsi, , creep. 

rodo, r5si, ros-, gnaw. 
scalpo, scalpsi, scalpt-, scrape. 
scribo, scripsi, script-, write. 
sculpS, sculpsi, sculpt-, carve. 

serpo, serpsi, , crawl. 

spargo, sparsi, spars-, scattw. 
-spicio, -spexi, -spect-, view. 
-stinguo, -stinxi, -stinct-, quench. 
stringo, strinxi, strict-, bind. 
struo, struxi, struct-, build. 
sugo, suxi, suet-, suck. 
sumo, sumpsi, sumpt-, take. 
surgo, surrexi, surrect-, rise. 
tego, texi, tect-, shelter. 
temno, -tempsi, -tempt-, despise. 
tergo, tersi, ters-, wipe. 
tingo, tinxi, tinct-, stain. 
trahd, traxi, tract-, drag. 
trud5, trusi, trus-, thrust. 
unguo (ungo), unxi, unct-, anoint. 
uro, ussi, ust-, burn. 
vad5, -vasi, -vas-, go. 
veh5, vexi, vect-, draw. 
vivo, vixi, vict-, live. 

77. c): — 

pari5, peperi, part- (pariturus), bring 

forth. 
pello, pepuli, puis-, drive. 
pendd, pependi, pens-, weigh. 

posed, poposci, , demand. 

pungo [pug], pupugi (-punxi), punct-, 

prick. 
sistd [sta], stiti, stat-, stop. 
tang5 [tag], tetigi, tact-, touch. 
tendo [ten] ,tetendi (-tendi),tent-, stretch. 
tundo [tud], tutudi, tuns- (-tus-), beat. 



c. Adding u (v) to the verb-root (§ 177. a) : — 

al5, alui, alt- (alit-), nourish. compesco, compescui, , restrain. 

cerno, crevi, -cret-, decree. consuls, -lui, consult-, consult. 

colS, colui, cult-, dwell, till. cresco, crevi, cret-, increase. 



124 



CONJUGATION OF THE VERB 



[§211 



-cumbS [cub], -cubui, -cubit-, lie down. rapid, rapui, rapt-, seize. 



deps5, depsui, depst-, knead. 

frem5, fremui, , roar. 

gemS, gemul, j groan. 

gignS [gen], genui, g^nit-, beget. 
metS, messui, -mess-, reap. 
molS, molui, molit-, grind. 
occul5, occului, occult-, hide. 
(ad)olesco, -evi, -ult-, grow up. 
pasco, pavl, past-, feed. 
percell5, -cull, -culs-, upset. 
pSnS [pos], posui, posit-, put. 
quiescS, quievi, quiet-, rest. 



sciscS, scivi, scit-, decree. 
serd, sevi, sat-, sow. 
serS, serui, sert-, entwine. 
sino, sivi, sit-, permit. 
spern5, sprevi, spret-, scorn. 
sterno, stravi, strat-, strew. 

sterto, -stertui, , snore. 

streps, strepui, — — , sound. 
suesco, suevi, suet-, be wont. 
texS, texui, text-, weave. 

tremS, tremui, , tremble. 

vom5, vomui, , vomit. 



d. Adding iv to the verb-root (§ 177./) :- 



pet5, petivi, petit-, seek. 
quaerS, quaesivi, quaesit-, seek. 

rudo, rudivi, , bray. 

sapio, sapivi, , be wise. 

tero, trivi, trit-, rub. 

e* Lengthening the vowel of the root (cf. § 177. d): — 



arcesso, 1 -ivi, arcessit-, summon. 

capesso, capessivi, , undertake. 

cupio, cupivi, cupit-, desire. 

incesso, incessivi, , attack. 

lacesso, lacessivi, lacessit-, provoke. 



ago, egi, act-, drive. 

capid, cepi, capt-, take. 

edo, edi, esum, eat (see § 201). 

emo, emi, empt-, buy. 

faciS, feci, fact-, make (see § 204). 

fodid, fodi, foss-, dig. 

frango [frag], fregi, fract-, break. 

fugio, fugi, (fugiturus),J2ee. 

fundo [run], fudi, fus-, pour. 

iacio, ieci, iact-, throw (-ici5, -iect-). 



lavo, lavi, lot- (laut-), wash (also regu- 
lar of first conjugation). 

lego, 2 legi, lect-, gather. 

lino [li], levi (livi), lit-, smear. 

linquo [lic], -liqui, -lict-, leave. 

noscS [gno], novi, not- (co-gnit-, a-gnit-, 
ad-gnit-), know. 

rurnpo [Rur], rupi, rupt-, burst 

scabo, scabi, , scratch. 



vinco [vie], vici, vict-, conquer. 
/• Retaining the present stem or verb-root (cf. § 177. e): — 



acuo, -ui, -ut-, sharpen. 
argud, -ui, -ut-, accuse. 
bib5, bibi, (pdtus), drink. 
-cendo, -cendi, -cens-, kindle. 

(con)gruo, -ui, -, agree. 

cudo, -cudi, -cus-, forge. 

facesso, -ii (facessi), facessit-, execute. 

-fendo, -fendi, -fens-, ward off. 

find5 [fid], fidi, 3 fiss-, split. 

icS, ici, ict-, hit. 



imbuo, -ui, -ut-, give a taste of. 
luo, lui, -lut-, wash. 
mandS, mandi, mans-, chew. 
metuo, -ui, -ut-, fear. 
minuo, -ui, -ut-, lessen. 

-nuo, -nui, , nod. 

pandS, pandi, pans- (pass-), open. 
pinsS, -si, pins- (plnst-, pist-), bruise. 
prehendS, -hendT, -hens-, seize. 
ruS, rui, rut- (ruiturus), fall. 



1 Sometimes accerso, etc. 

2 The following compounds of lego have -lexi : diligo, intellego, neglego. 

3 In this the perfect stem is the same as the verb-root, having lost the reduplica- 
tion (§ 177. c. n.). 



§§ 211, 212] 



FOURTH CONJUGATION 



125 



scando, -scendi, -scensus, climb. 
scindo [scid], scidi, 1 sciss-, tear. 
sido, sidi (-sedi), -sess-, settle. 
solv5, solvl, solut-, loose, pay. 

spuo, -ui, , spit. 

statuo, -ui, -ut-, establish. 

sternuo, -ui, , sneeze. 

strido, stridi, , ivhiz. 



suo, sul, sut-, sew. 
(ex)uo, -ui, -ut-, put off. 
tribuo, -ui, -iit-, assign, 
vello, velll (-vulsi), vuls-, pluck. 
verr5, -verri, vers-, sweep. 
vert5, verti, vers-, turn. 
vis5 [vid], visi, vis-, visit. 
volvo, volvi, volut-, turn. 



Note. — Several have no perfect or supine: as, claud5, limp; fatisco, gape; hisco, 
yawn; tollo (sustuli, sublatum, supplied from suffero), raise; vergo, incline. 

Fourth Conjugation 

212. There are — besides a few deponents and some regular 
derivatives in -urio, as, esurio, be hungry (cf. § 263.4) — about 
60 verbs of this conjugation, a large proportion of them being 
descriptive verbs : like — 

crocio, croak; mugio, bellow; tinnio, tinkle. 

a. Most verbs of the Fourth Conjugation are conjugated regularly, like 
audio, though a number lack the supine. 

&• The following verbs show special peculiarities : — 



amicid, amixi (-cui), amict-, clothe. 
aperio, aperui, apert-, open. 
comperio, -perl, compert-, find. 
farcio, farsi, fartum, stuff. 

ferid, , , strike. 

fulcio, fulsi, fult-, prop. 

hauriS, hausi, haust- (hausiirus), drain. 

operio, operui, opert-, cover. 

reperiS, repperi, repert-, find. 



saepio, saepsi, saept-, hedge in. 

salio (-silio), salul (salii) , [salt- (-suit-)], 

leap. 
sancid [sac], sanxi, sanct-, sanction. 
sarcio, sarsi, sart-, patch. 
sentiS, sensi, sens-, feel. 
sepelio, sepelivi, sepult-, bury. 
venio, veni, vent-, come. 
vincio, vinxi, vinct-, bind. 



For Index of Verbs, see pp. 436 ff. 



1 See footnote 3, page 124. 



126 PARTICLES [§§ 213, 214 



PARTICLES 

213. Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Interjections 
are called Particles. 

In their origin Adverbs, Prepositions, and Conjunctions are 
either (1) case-forms, actual or extinct, or (2) compounds and 
phrases. 

Particles cannot always be distinctly classified, for many adverbs are 
used also as prepositions and many as conjunctions (§§ 219 and 222). 

ADVERBS 

Derivation of Adverbs 

214. Adverbs are regularly formed from Adjectives as follows : 

a* From adjectives of the first and second declensions by changing the 
characteristic vowel of the stem to -e : as, care, dearly, from carus, dear (stem 
caro-) ; amice, like a friend, from amicus, friendly (stem amico-). 

Note. — The ending -e is a relic of an old ablative in -ed (cf. § 43. n. 1). 

b. From adjectives of the third declension by adding -ter to the stem. 
Stems in nt- (nom. -ns) lose the t-. All others are treated as i-stems : — 

fortiter, bravely, from fortis (stem forti-), brave. 
acriter, eagerly, from acer (stem acri-), eager. 
vigilanter, watchfully, from vigilans (stem vigilant-), 
prudenter, prudently, from prudens (stem prudent-), 
aliter, otherwise, from alius (old stem ali-). 

Note. — This suffix is perhaps the same as -ter in the Greek -repos and in uter, alter. 
If so,these adverbs are in origin either neuter accusatives (cf .d) or masculine nominatives. 

c. Some adjectives of the first and second declensions have adverbs of 
both forms (-e and -ter). Thus durus, hard, has both dure and duriter; 
miser, ivretched, has both misere and miseriter. 

d. The neuter accusative of adjectives and pronouns is often used as an 
adverb : as, multum, much ; facile, easily ; quid, why. 

This is the origin of the ending -ius in the comparative degree of ad- 
verbs (§ 218): as, acrius, more keenly (positive acriter); facilius, more easily 
(positive facile). 

Note. — These adverbs are strictly cognate accusatives (§ 390). 

e. The ablative singular neuter or (less commonly) feminine of adjectives, 
pronouns, and nouns may be used adverbially: aa, f also, falsely ; cit5, 



§§ 214-216] DERIVATION OF ADVERBS 127 

quickly (with shortened o); recta (via), straight (straightway); crebro, fre- 
quently ; volgo, commonly ; forte, by chance ; sponte, of one's own accord. 

Note. — Some adverbs are derived from adjectives not in use: as, abunde, plenti- 
fully (as if from fabundus ; cf . abundo, abound) ; saepe, often (as if from fsaepis, dense, 
close-packed; cf. saepes, hedge, and saepio, hedge in). 

215. Further examples of Adverbs and other Particles which 
are in origin case-forms of nouns or pronouns a"re given below. 
In some the case is not obvious, and in some it is doubtful. 

1. Neuter Accusative forms: non (for ne-oinom, later unum), not; iterum (compara- 
tive of i-, stem of is), a second time; demum (superlative of de, down), at last. 

2. Feminine Accusatives: partim, partly. So statim, on the spot; saltim, at least 
(generally saltern), from lost nouns in -tis (genitive -tis). Thus -tim became a regular 
adverbial termination ; and by means of it adverbs were made from many noun- and 
verb-stems immediately, without the intervention of any form which could have an 
accusative in -tim: as, separatim, separately, from separatus, separate. Some adverbs 
that appear to be feminine accusative are possibly instrumental : as, palam, openly ; 
perperam, wrongly ; tarn, so; quam, as. 

3. Plural Accusatives : as, alias, elsewhere ; foras, out of doors (as end of motion). 
So perhaps quia, because. 

4. Ablative or Instrumental forms: qua, ivhere; intra, within; extra, outside; qui, 
how; aliqui, somehoio ; forls, out of doors; qu5, whither; adeo, to that degree; ultro, 
beyond; citro, this side (as end of motion) ; retro, back; illoc (for fillo-ce), weakened to 
illuc, thither. Those in -tro are from comparative stems (cf . uls, cis, re-) . 

5. Locative forms : ibi, there; ubi, where ; illi, illi-c, there; peregri (peregre), abroad; 
hie (for fhi-ce), here. Also the compounds hodie (probably for foodie), to-day; perendie, 
day after to-morrow. 

6. Of uncertain formation: (1) those in -tus (usually preceded by i), with an abla- 
tive meaning: as, funditus, from the bottom, utterly; divinitus, from above, provi- 
dentially; intus, within; penitus, within; (2) those in -dem, -dam, -do: as, quidem, 
indeed; quondam, once; quandd (cf. donee), when; (3) dum (probably accusative of 
time), while; iam, now. 

216. A phrase or short sentence has sometimes grown together 
into an adverb (cf. notwithstanding, nevertheless, besides): — 

postmodo, presently (a short time after), 
denuo (for de nov5), anew. 
videlicet (for vide licet), to wit (see, you may). 
nihil5minus, nevertheless (by nothing the less). 

Note. — Other examples are: — antea, old antidea, before (ante ea, probably abla- 
tive or instrumental) ; ilic5 (in loc5), on the spot, immediately; prorsus, absolutely (pr5 
vorsus, straight ahead) ; rursus (re-vorsus), again; quotannis, yearly (quotannis, as many 
years as there are) ; quam-ob-rem, wherefore ; cominus, hand to hand (con manus) ; eminus, 
at long range (ex manus) ; nlmirum, without doubt (ni minim) ; ob-viam (as in ire obviam, 
to go to meet) ; prldem (cf . prae and -dem in i-dem) , for some time ; f orsan (f ors an) , per- 
haps (it's a chance whether); forsitan (fors sit an), perhaps (it would be a chance 
whether) ; scilicet (fsci, licet), that is to say (know, you may ; cf- i-Wcet, you may go) ; 
ftctutum (actu, on the act, and turn, then). 



128 



PAKTICLES 



[§217 



Classification of Adverbs 
217. The classes of Adverbs, with examples, are as follows : 



a. Adverbs of Place 1 



hie, here, 
ibi, there. 
istic, there. 
illic, there. 
ubi, where. 
alicubi, somewhere. 

ibidem, in the same 

place. 
alibi, elsewhere, in 

another place. 
ubiubi, wherever. 

ubivis, anywhere, 

where you will. 
sicubi, if any where. 

necubi, lest any- 
where. 



hue, hither. 
eo, thither. 
istuc, thither. 
illuc, thither. 
qu5, whither. 
aliqu5, somewhither, 

(to) somewhere. 
eddem, to the same 

place. 
alio, elsewhere, to 

another place. 
quoquo, whitherso- 
ever. 
quovis, anywhere, 

whither you will. 
siquo, if anywhere 

(any whither). 
nequo, lest any- 

whither. 



nine, hence. 

inde, thence. 

istinc, thence. 

illinc, thence. 

unde, whence. 

alicunde,/ro?/i some- 
where. 

indidem, from the 
same place. 

aliunde, from an- 
other place. 

undecunque, whence- 
soever. 

undique, from every 
quarter. 

sicunde, if from any- 
where. 

necunde, lest from 
anywhere. 



hac, by this way. 
ea, by that way. 
ista, by that way. 
ilia (iliac), " " 
qua, by what way. 
aliqua, by someway. 

eadem, by the same 

way. 
alia, in another 

way. 
quaqua, in whatever 

way. 
quavis, by whatever 

way. 
siqua, if anywhere. 

nequa, lest any- 
where. 



Note. — The demonstrative adverbs luc, ibi, istic, illi, illic, and their correlatives, 
correspond in signification with the pronouns hie, is, iste, ille (see § 146), and are often 
equivalent to these pronouns with a preposition : as, inde = ab eo, etc. So the relative or 
interrogative ubi corresponds with qui (quis), ali-cubi with aliquis, ubiubi with quisquis, 
si-cubi with siquis (see §§ 147-151, with the table of correlatives in § 152). 

usque, all the way to ; usquam, anywhere ; nusquam, nowhere ; citro, to this side ; 
intro, inwardly; ultro, beyond (or freely, i.e. beyond what is required); 
porr5, further on. 

quorsum (for quo vorsum, whither turned?), to what end? horsum, this vjay ; 
prorsum, forward (prorsus, utterly); intrdrsum, inwardly; retrorsum, back- 
ward; sursum, upivard ; deorsum, downward; seorsum, apart; aliorsum, 
another wa,y. 

h. Adverbs of Time 

quando, when? (interrogative); cum (quom), when (relative); ut, when, as; nunc, 
now; tunc (turn), then; mox, presently; iam, already; dum, while; iam diu, 
iam dudum, iam pridem, long ago, long since. 

1 All these adverbs were originally case-forms of pronouns. The forms in -bi and 
-ic are locative, those in -5 and -uc, -a and -ac, ablative (see § 215) ; those in -inc are 
from -im (of uncertain origin) with the particle -ce added (thus illim. illin-c). 



§§217,218] ADVERBS 129 

primum (j>ximo) , first ; deinde (postea), next after ; postremum (postremo) , finally ; 

posteaquam, postquam, when (after that, as soon as). 
umquam (unquam), ever ; numquam (nunquam), never ; semper, always. 
aliquandd, at some time, at length; quanddque (quandocumque) , whenever ; denique, 

at last. 
quotiens (quoties), how often; totiens, so often; aliquotiens, a number of times. 
cotidie, every day ; hodie, to-day ; heri, yesterday ; eras, to-morrow ; pridie, the day 

before ; postridie, the day after ; in dies, from day to day. 
nSndum, not yet; necdum, nor yet; vixdum, scarce yet; quam primum, as soon as 

possible; saepe, often; crebro, frequently ; iam non, no longer. 

c. Adverbs of Manner, Degree, or Cause 

quam, how, as; tarn, so ; quamvis, however much, although; paene, almost; magis, 

more; valde, greatly ; vix, hardly. 
cur, quare, why ; ideo, idcirco, propterea, on this account, because; eo, therefore; 

ergo, itaque, igitur, therefore. 
ita, sic, so; ut (uti), as, how; utut, utcumque, however. 

d. Interrogative Particles 

an, -ne, anne, utrum, utrumne, num, whether. 
nonne, annon, whether not; numquid, ecquid, whether at all. 
On the use of the Interrogative Particles, see §§ 332, 335. 

e. Negative Particles 

n5n, not (in simple denial) ; haud, minime, not (in contradiction) ; ne, not (in pro- 
hibition) ; neve, neu, nor ; nedum, much less. 

ne, lest; neque, nee, nor ; ne . . . quidem, not even. 

non modo . . . verum (sed) etiam, not only . . . but also. 

non modo . . . sed ne . . . quidem, not only not . . . but not even. 

si minus, if not ; quo minus (quominus), so as not. 

quin (relative), but that; (interrogative), why not? 

ne, nee (in composition), not; so in nesciS, I know not ; nego, I say no (aio, I say 
yes) ; negotium, business (tnec-otium) ; nem5 (ne- and hemd, old form of homo), 
no one ; ne quis, lest any one; neque enim, for . . . not. 

For the use of Negative Particles, see § 325 fr". 

For the Syntax and Peculiar uses of Adverbs, see § 320 ft. 

Comparison of Adverbs 

218. The Comparative of Adverbs is the neuter accusative of 
the comparative of the corresponding adjective; the Superlative 
is the Adverb in -e formed regularly from the superlative of the 
Adjective : — 



130 PARTICLES [§§ 218-220 

care, dearly (from cams, dear) ; carius, carissime. 

misere (miseriter), wretchedly (from miser, wretched); miserius, miserrime. 

leviter (from levis, light) ; levius, levissime. 

audacter (audaciter) (from audax, bold) ; audacius, audacissime. 

bene, well (from bonus, good) ; melius, optime. 

mal§, ill (from malus, bad) ; peius, pessime. 

a. The following are irregular or defective : — 
diu, long (in time) ; diutius, diutissime. 
potius, rather ; potissimum, first of all, in preference to all. 
saepe, often; saepius, oftener, again; saepissime. 
satis, enough ; satius, preferable. 
secus, otherioise; setius, worse. 
multum (multd), magis, maxirne, much, more, most 
parum, not enough ; minus, less ; minime, least. 
nuper, newly ; nuperrime. 
tempere, seasonably ; temperius. 

Note. — In poetry the comparative mage is sometimes used instead of magis. 

PREPOSITIONS 

219. Prepositions were not originally distinguished from Adverbs in form or mean- 
ing, but have become specialized in use. They developed comparatively late in the 
history of language. In the early stages of language development the cases alone 
were sufficient to indicate the sense, but, as the force of the case-endings weakened, 
adverbs were used for greater precision (ef . § 338) . These adverbs, from their habitual 
association with particular cases, became Prepositions ; but many retained also their 
independent function as adverbs. 

Most prepositions are true case-forms : as, the comparative ablatives extra, infra, supra 
(for textera, finfera, fsupera), and the accusatives circum, coram, cum (cf . § 215 ) . Circiter 
is an adverbial formation from circum (cf. § 214. b. n.) ; praeter is the comparative of 
prae, propter of prope. 1 Of the remainder, versus is a petrified nominative (participle 
of verto) ; adversus is a compound of versus ; trans is probably an old present participle 
(cf. in-tra-re) ; while the origin of the brief forms ab, ad, de, ex, ob, is obscure and 
doubtful. 

220. Prepositions are regularly used either with the Accusa- 
tive or with the Ablative. 

a. The following prepositions are used with the Accusative : — 

ad, to. circiter, about. intra, inside. 

adversus, against. cis, citra, this side. iuxta, near. 

adversum, towards. contra, against. ob, on account of. 

ante, before. erga, towards. penes, in the power of. 

apud, at, near. extra, outside. per, through. 

circa, around. infra, below. pone, behind. 

circum, around. inter, among. post, after. 

1 The case-form of these prepositions in -ter is doubtful. 






§§ 220, 221] PREPOSITIONS 131 

praeter, beyond. secundum, next to. ultra, on the further side. 

prope, near. supra, above. versus^ towards. 

propter, on account of. trans, across. 

b* The following prepositions are used with the Ablative : — 1 
a, ab, abs, away from, by. e, ex, out of. 

absque, without, but for. prae, in comparison with. 

coram, in presence of. pro, in front of, for. 

cum, with. sine, without. 

de, from. tenus, up to, as far as. 

c. The following may be used with either the Accusative or the Abla- 
tive, but with a difference in meaning : — 

in, into, in. sub, under. 

subter, beneath. super, above. 

In and sub, when followed by the accusative, indicate motion to, when by 
the ablative, rest in, a place : 

venit in aedis, he came into the house ; erat in aedibus, he was in the house. 
disciplina in Britannia reperta atque inde in Galliam translata esse existi- 
matur, the system is thought to have been discovered in Great Britain and 
thence brought over to Gaul. 
sub ilice consederat, he had seated himself under an ilex. 
sub leges mittere orbem, to subject the world to laws (to send the world under 
laws). 

221. The uses of the Prepositions are as follows: — 

1. A, ab, away from, 2 from, off from, with the ablative. 

a. Of place : as, — ab urbe profectus est, he set out from the city. 

b. Of time : (1) from : as, — ab bora tertia ad vesperam, from the third hour 
till evening ; (2) just after : as, — ab eo magistrate, after [holding] that office. 

c. Idiomatic uses : a reliquis differunt, they differ from the others; a parvulis, 
from early childhood; prope ab urbe, near (not far from) the city ; liberare ab, 
to set free from; occlsus ab hoste (periit ab hoste), slain by an enemy ; ab hac 
.parte, on this side; ab re eius, to his advantage; a re ptiblica, for the interest of 
the state. 

2. Ad, to, towards, at, near, with the accusative (cf. in, into). 

a. Of place : as, — ad urbem venit, he came to the city ; ad meridiem, towards 
the south; ad exercitum, to the army ; ad hostem, toward the enemy ; ad urbem, 
near the city. 

b. Of time : as, — ad nonam horam, till the ninth hour. 

c. With persons : as, — ad eum venit, he came to him. 

1 For palam etc., see § 432. 

2 Ab signifies direction from the object, but often towards the speaker; compare d§, 
down from, and ex, out of. 



132 PARTICLES [§ 221 

d. Idiomatic uses : ad supplicia descendunt, they resort to punishment ; ad 
haee respondit, to this he answered ; ad tempus, at the [fit] time ; adire ad rem 
publicam, to go into public life; ad petendam pacem, to seek peace; ad latera, 
on the flank; ad arma, to arms; ad nunc modum, in this way ; quern ad modum, 
how, as; ad centum, nearly a hundred; ad hoc, besides ; o nines ad tinum, all to 
a man; ad diem, on the day. 

3. Ante, in front of, before, with, the accusative (cf. post, after). 

a. Of place : as, — ante portam, in front of the gate ; ante exercitum , in advance 
of the army. 

b. Of time : as, — ante bellum, before the war. 

c. Idiomatic uses : ante urbem captam, before the city was taken; ante diem 
quintum (a.d.v.) Kal., the fifth day before the Calends; ante quadriennium, four 
years before or ago ; ante tempus, too soon (before the time). 

4. Apud, at, by, among, with the accusative. 

a. Of place (rare and archaic) : as, — apud forum, at the forum (in the market- 
place). 

b. With reference to persons or communities : as, — apud Helvetios, among 
the Helvetians; apud populum, before the people; apud aliquem, at one's house; 
apud se, at home or in his senses ; apud Ciceronem, in [the works of] Cicero. 

5. Circa, about, around, with the accusative (cf. circum, circiter). 

a. Of place : templa circa forum, the temples about the forum ; circa se habet> 
he has with him (of persons). 

b. Of time or number (in poetry and later writers) : circa eandem horam, 
about the same hour; circa Idus Octobris, about the fifteenth of October; circa 
decern milia, about ten thousand. 

c. Figuratively (in later writers), about, in regard to (cf. de) : circa quern 
pugna est, with regard to whom, etc. ; circa deos neglegentior, rather neglectful of 
(i.e. in worshipping) the gods. 

6. Circiter, about, with the accusative. 

a. Of time or number : circiter idus Novembris, about the thirteenth of Novem- 
ber ; circiter meridiem, about noon. 

7. Circum, about, around, with the accusative. 

a. Of place : circum haec loca, hereabout ; circum Capuam, round Capua ; 
circum ilium, with him; legatio circum insulas missa, an embassy sent to the 
islands round about ; circum amicos, to his friends round about. 

8. Contra, opposite, against, with the accusative. 

contra Italiam, over against Italy ; contra haec, in answer to this. 

a. Often as adverb: as, — haec contra, this in reply; contra autem, but on 
the other hand ; quod contra, whereas, on the other hand. 

9. Cum, with, together with, with the ablative. 



§ 221] PEEPOSITIONS 133 

a. Of place: as, — vade mecum, go with me; cum omnibus impediments, 
with all [their] baggage. 

b. Of time : as, — prima cum luce, at early dawn (with first light). 

c. Idiomatic uses: magno cum dolore, with great sorrow; communicare ali- 
quid cum aliquo, share something with some one; cum malo suo, to his own hurt ■ 
confllgere cum hoste, to fight with the enemy; esse cum telo, to go armed; cum 
silentio, in silence. 

10. De, down from, from, with the ablative (cf. ab, away from ; 
ex, out of). 

a. Of place: as, -de caelo demissns, sent down from heaven; de navibus 
desilire, to jump down from the ships. 

b. Figuratively, concerning, about, of: 1 as, — cognoscit de Clodi caede, he 
learns of the murder of Clodius ; consilia de bello, plans of war. 

c. In a partitive sense (compare ex), out of of: as, — unus de plebe, one of the 
people. 

d. Idiomatic uses: multis de causis, for many reasons; qua de causa, for 
which reason; de improviso, of a sudden; de industria, on purpose; de integro, 
anew; de tertia vigilia, just at midnight (starting at the third watch) ; de mense 
Decembri navigare, to sail as early as December. 

11. Ex, e,from (the midst, opposed to in), out of with the abla- 
tive (cf. ab and de). 

a. Of place : as, — ex omnibus partibus silvae evolaverunt, they flew out from 
all parts of the forest ; ex Hispania, [a man] from Spain. 

b. Of time : as, — ex eo die quintus, the fifth day from that (four days after) ; 
ex hoc die, from this day forth. 

c. Idiomatically or less exactly : ex consulate, right after his consulship ; 
ex eius sententia, according to his opinion; ex aequo, justly ; ex improviso, 
unexpectedly ; ex tua re, to your advantage; magna ex parte, in a great degree; 
ex equo pugnare, to fight on horseback; ex usu, expedient; e regione, opposite; 
quaerere ex aliquo, to ask of some one; ex senatus consulto, according to the 
decree of the senate ; ex fuga, in [their] flight (proceeding immediately from it) ; 
unus e fllils, one of the sons. 

12. In, with the accusative or the ablative. 
1. With the accusative, into (opposed to ex). 

a. Of place : as, — in Italiam contendit, he hastens into Italy. 

b. Of time, till, until: as, — in lucem, till daylight. 

c. Idiomatically or less exactly: in meridiem, towards the south; amor in 
(erga, adversus) patrem, love for his father ; in aram confugit, he fled to the altar 
(on the steps, or merely to) ; in dies, from day to day ; in longitudinem, length- 
wise ; in latitudinem patebat, extended in width; in haec verba iurare, to swear 
to these words; hunc in modum, in this way ; oratio in Catilinam, a speech against 

1 Of originally meant from (cf. off). 



134 PARTICLES [§ 221 

Catiline; in perpetuum, forever ; in peius, for the worse; in diem vivere, to live 
from hand to mouth (for the day). 

2. With the ablative, in, on, among. 

In very various connections : as, — in castrls, in the camp (cf . ad castra, to, at, 
or near the camp) ; in marl, on the sea; in urbe esse, to be in town; in tempore, 
in season; in scrlbendo, while writing ; est mihi in animo, I have it in mind, I 
intend; in ancoris, at anchor ; in hoc homine, in the case of this man; in dubio 
esse, to be in doubt. 

13. Infra, below, with the accusative. 

a. Of place : as, — ad mare infra oppidum, by the sea below the town; infra 
caelum, under the sky. 

b. Figuratively or less exactly: as, — infra Homerum, later than Homer; 
infra tres pedes, less than three feet ; Infra elephantos, smaller than elephants ; 
infra Infinios omnis, the lowest of the low. 

14. Inter, between, among, with the accusative. 

inter me et Sclpionem, between myself and Scipio ; inter os et offam, between 
the cup and the lip (the mouth and the morsel) ; inter hostium tela, amid 
the weapons of the enemy ; inter omnis primus, first of all ; inter biben- 
dum, while drinking ; inter se loquuntur, they talk together. 

15. Ob, towards, on account of, with the accusative. 

a. Literally : (1) of motion (archaic) : as, — ob Romam, towards Borne 
(Ennius) ; ob viam, to the road (preserved as adverb, in the way of). (2) Of place 
in which, before, in a few phrases : as, — ob oculos, before the eyes. 

b. Figuratively, in return for (mostly archaic, probably a word of account, 
balancing one thing against another) : as, — ob mulierem, in pay for the woman ; 
ob rem, for gain. Hence applied to reason, cause, and the like, on account of 
(a similar mercantile idea), for : as, — ob earn causam, for that reason; quam ob 
rem (quamobrem), wherefore, why. 

16. Per, through, over, with the accusative. 

a. Of motion: as, — per urbem Ire, to go through the city; per muros, over 
the walls. 

b. Of time : as, — per hiemem, throughout the winter. 

c. Figuratively, of persons as means or instruments : as, — per homines ido- 
neos, through the instrumentality of suitable persons ; licet per me, you (etc.) may 
for all me. Hence, stat per me, it is through my instrumentality ; so, per se, in 
and of itself. 

d. Weakened, in many adverbial expressions : as, — per iocum, in jest; per 
speciem, in show, ostentatiously. 

17. Prae, in front of, with the ablative. 

a. Literally, of place (in a few connections) : as, — prae se portare, to carry 
in one's arms; prae se ferre, to carry before one, (hence figuratively) exhibit, pro- 
claim ostentatiously, make known. 



§ 221] PREPOSITIONS 135 

b. Figuratively, of hindrance, as by an obstacle in front (compare English 
for) : as, — prae gaudio conticuit, he was silent for joy. 

c. Of comparison : as, — prae magnitudine corporum suorum, in comparison 
with their own great size. 

18. Praeter, along by, by, with, the accusative. 

a. Literally : as, — praeter castra, by the camp (along by, in front of) ; praeter 
oculos, before the eyes. 

b. Figuratively, beyond, besides, more than, in addition to, except : as, — praeter 
spem, beyond hope; praeter alios, more than others; praeter paucos, with the 
exception of a few. 

19. Pro, in front of, with the ablative. 

sedens pro aede Castoris, sitting in front of the temple of Castor ; pro populo, 

in presence of the people. So pro rostrls, on [the front of] the rostra ; 

pro contione, before the assembly (in a speech). 

a. In various idiomatic uses: pro lege, in defence of the law; pro vitula, 

instead of a heifer ; pro centum milibus, as good as a hundred thousand ; pro 

rata parte, in due proportion ; pro hac vice, for this once; pro consule, in place 

of consul; pro vlribus, considering his strength; pro virili parte, to the best of 

one's ability; pro tua priidentia, in accordance with your wisdom. 

20. Propter, near, by, with the accusative. 

propter te sedet, he sits next you. Hence, on account of (cf. all along of) : 
as, — propter me turn, through fear. 

21. Secundum, 1 just behind, following, with the accusative. 

a. Literally: as, — ite secundum me (Plaut.), go behind me; secundum Htus, 
near the shore; secundum fiumen, along the stream (cf. secundo flumme, down 
stream). 

b. Figuratively, according to : as, — secundum nattiram, according to nature. 

22. Sub, under, up to, with the accusative or the ablative. 

1. Of motion, with the accusative : as, — sub montem succedere, to come close 
to the hill. 

a. Idiomatically: sub no c tern, towards night ; sub lucem, near daylight ; sub 
haec dicta, at (following) these words. 

2. Of rest, with the ablative : as, — sub love, in the open air (under the heaven, 
personified as Jove) ; sub monte, at the foot of the hill. 

a. Idiomatically : sub eodem tempore, about the same time (just after it). 

23. Subter, under, below, with the accusative (sometimes, in poetry, 
the ablative). 

subter togam (Liv.), under his mantle; but, — subter lltore (Catull.), below 
the shore. 

24. Super, 2 with the accusative or the ablative. 

I Old participle of sequor. 2 Comparative of sub. 



136 PARTICLES [§ 221 

1. With the accusative, above, over, on, beyond, upon, 

a. Of place : super vallum praecipitari (lug. 58), to be hurled over the ram- 
part; super lateres coria inducuntur (B.C. ii. 10), hides are drawn over the bricks; 
super terrae tumulum statul (Legg. ii. 65), to be placed on the mound of earth; 
super Numidiam (lug. 19), beyond Numidia. 

b. Idiomatically or less exactly : vulnus super vuluus, wound upon wound ; 
super vinum (Q. C. viii. 4), over his wine. 

2. With the ablative, concerning, about (the only use with this case in 
prose). 

hac super re, concerning this thing; super tall re, about such an affair; lit- 
teras super tanta re exspectare, to wait for a letter in a matter of such 
importance. 

a. Poetically, in other senses : ligna super foco large reponens (Hor. Od. i. 
9. 5), piling logs generously on the fire; nocte super media (Aen. ix. 61), after 
midnight. 

25: Supra, on top of, above, with the accusative, 
supra terram, on the surface of the earth. So also figuratively : as, — supra 
hanc memoriam, before our remembrance; supra morem, more than 
usual ; supra quod, besides. 

26. Tenus (postpositive), as far as, up to, regularly with the abla- 
tive, sometimes with the genitive (cf. § 359. b). 

1. With the ablative : Tauro tenus, as far as Taurus; capulo tenus, up to the 
hilt. 

2. With the genitive : Cumarum tenus (Fam. viii. 1. 2), as far as Cumae. 

Note 1. — Tenus is frequently connected with the feminine of an adjective pronoun, 
making an adverbial phrase: as, hactenus, hitherto; quatenus, so far as; de Lac re 
hactenus, so much for that (about this matter so far). 

Note 2. — Tenus was originally a neuter noun, meaning line or extent. In its use 
with the genitive (mostly poetical) it may be regarded as an adverbial accusative 
(§397. a). 

27. Trans, across, over, through, by, with the accusative. 

a. Of motion : as, — trans mare currunt, they run across the sea ; trans flu- 
men ferre, to carry over a river ; trans aethera, through the sky ; trans caput iace, 
throw over your head. 

b. Of rest : as, — trans Rhenum incolunt, they live across the Rhine. 

28. Ultra, beyond (on the further side), with the accusative. 

cis Padum ultraque, on this side of the Po and beyond ; ultra eum numerum, 
more than that number ; ultra fidem, incredible; ultra modum, immod- 
erate. 

Note. — Some adverbs appear as prepositions: as, intus, insuper (see § 219). 
For Prepositions in Compounds, see § 267. 



§§ 222-224] CONJUNCTIONS 137 



CONJUNCTIONS 

222. Conjunctions, like prepositions (cf. § 219), are closely related to adverbs, and 
are either petrified cases of nouns, pronouns, and adjectives, or obscured phrases: as, 
quod, an old accusative ; duln, probably an old accusative (cf . turn, cum) ; vero, an old 
neuter ablative of verus; nihildrainus, none the less; proinde, lit. forward from there. 
Most conjunctions are connected with pronominal adverbs, which cannot always be re- 
ferred to their original case-forms. 

223. Conjunctions connect words, phrases, or sentences. They 
are of two classes, Coordinate and Subordinate : — 

a. Coordinate, connecting coordinate or similar constructions (see § 278. 
2. a). These are: — 

1. Copulative or disjunctive, implying a connection or separation of thought 
as well as of words : as, et, and; aut, or; neque, nor. 

2. Adversative, implying a connection of words, but a contrast in thought : 
W5, sed, but. 

3. Causal, introducing a cause or reason : as, nam, for. 

4. Illative, denoting an inference : as, igitur, therefore. 

b. Subordinate, connecting a subordinate or independent clause with 
that on which it depends (see § 278. 2. b). These are : — 

1. Conditional, denoting a condition or hypothesis : as, si, if; nisi, unless. 

2. Comparative, implying comparison as well as condition : as, ac si, as if. 

3. Concessive, denoting a concession or admission : as, quamquam, although 
(lit. however much it may be true that, etc.). 

4. Temporal : as, postquam, after. 

5. Consecutive, expressing result : as, ut, so that. 

6. Final, expressing purpose : as, ut, in order that; ne, that not. 

7. Causal, expressing cause : as, quia, because. 

224. Conjunctions are more numerous and more accurately 
distinguished in Latin than in English. The following list 
includes the common conjunctions 1 and conjunctive phrases : — 

Coordinate 
i 

a. Copulative and Disjunctive 

et, -que, atque (ac), and. 

et . . . et ; et . . . -que (atque); -que . . . et ; -que . . . -que (poetical), both . . . and. 

etiam, quoque, neque non (necnon), quin etiam, itidem (item), also. 

cum . . . turn; turn . . . turn, both . . . and; not only . . . but also. 

1 Some of these have been included in the classification of adverbs. See also list 
of Correlatives, § 152. 



138 PARTICLES [§ 224 

qua . . . qua, on the one hand . . . on the other hand. 

modo . . . modo, now . . . now. 

aut . . . aut ; vel . . . vel (-ve) , either . . . or. 

sive (seu) . . . sive, whether . . . or. 

nee (neque) . . . nee (neque) ; neque . . . nee ; nee . . . neque (rare) , neither . . . nor. 

et . . . neque, both . . . and not. 

nee . . . et ; nee (neque) . . . -que, neither (both not) . . . and. 

b. Adversative 

sed, autem, verum, vero, at, atqui, but. 

tamen, attamen, sed tamen, verum tamen, but yet, nevertheless. 

nihilominus, none the less. 

at ver5, but in truth; enimvero, for in truth. 

ceterum, on the other hand, but. 

c. Causal 

nam, namque, enim, etenim, for. 

quapropter, quare, quamobrem, quocirca, unde, wherefore, whence. 

d. Illative 

erg5, igitur, itaque, ided, idcirco, inde, proinde, therefore, accordingly. 



Subordinate 
a. Conditional 

si, if; sin, but if; nisi (ni), unless, if not; quod si, but if. 
modo, dum, dummodo, si modo, if only, provided. 
dummodo ne (dum ne, modo ne), provided only not. 

b. Comparative 

ut, uti, sieut, just as; velut, as, so as; prout, praeut, ceu, like as, according as. 
tamquam (tanquam), quasi, ut si, ac si, velut, veluti, velut si, as if. 
quam, atque (ac), as, than. 

c. Concessive 

etsi, etiamsi, tametsi, even if; quamquam (quanquam), although. 
quamvis, quantumvis, quamlibet, quantumlibet, however much. 
licet (properly a verb), ut, cum (quom), though, siqjpose, whereas. 

d. Temporal 

cum (quom), quando, when; nbi, ut, when, as; cum primum, ut primum, ubi primum, 

simul, simul ac, simul atque, as soon as; postquam (posteaquam), after. 
prius . . . quam, ante . . . quam, before; non ante . . . quam, not . . . until. 
dum, usque dum, donee, quoad, until, as long as, while. 



§§ 224-226] INTERJECTIONS 139 

e. Consecutive and Final 

ut (uti), quo, so that , in order that. 

ne, ut ne, lest (that . . . not, in order that not) ; neve (neu), that not, nor. 

quin (after negatives), quominus, but that (so as to prevent), that not. 

f. Causal 

quia, quod, quoniarn (tquom-iam), quando, because. 

cum (quom), since. 

quandSquidem, si quidem, quippe, ut pote, since indeed, inasmuch as. 

propterea . . . quod, for this reason . . . that. 

On the use of Conjunctions, see §§ 323, 324. 



INTERJECTIONS 

225. Some Interjections are mere natural exclamations of feeling; others are 
derived from inflected parts of speech, e.g. the imperatives em, lo (probably for erne, 
take); age, come, etc. Names of deities occur in hercle, pol (from Pollux), etc. Many- 
Latin interjections are borrowed from the Greek, as euge, euhoe, etc. 

226. The following list comprises most of the Interjections in 
common use : — 

6, en, ecce, ehem, papae, van (of astonishment). 

io, evae, evoe, euhoe (of joy). 

heu, eheu, vae, alas (of sorrow). 

heus, eho, ehodum, ho (of calling) ; st, hist. 

eia, euge (of praise) . 

pro (of attestation) : as, pro pudor, shame I 



140 FORMATION OF WORDS [§§227-230 



FORMATION OF WORDS 

227. All formation of words is originally a process of composition. An element 
significant in itself is added to another significant element, and thus the meaning of 
the two is combined. No other combination is possible for the formation either of 
inflections or of stems. Thus, in fact, ivords (since roots and stems are significant 
elements, and so words) are first placed side by side, then brought under one accent, 
and finally felt as one word. The gradual process is seen in sea voyage, sea-nymph, 
seaside. But as all derivation, properly so called, appears as a combination of unin- 
flected stems, every type of formation in use must antedate inflection. Hence words 
were not in strictness derived either from nouns or from verbs, but from stems which 
were neither, because they were in fact both ; for the distinction between noun-stems 
and verb-stems had not yet been made. 

After the development of Inflection, however, that one of several kindred words 
which seemed the simplest was regarded as the primitive form, and from this the other 
words of the group were thought to be derived. Such supposed processes of formation 
were then imitated, often erroneously, and in this way new modes of derivation arose. 
Thus new adjectives were formed from nouns, new nouns from adjectives, new adjec- 
tives from verbs, and new verbs from adjectives and nouns. 

In course of time the real or apparent relations of many words became confused, 
so that nouns and adjectives once supposed to come from nouns were often assigned 
to verbs, ^nd others once supposed to come from verbs were assigned to nouns. 

Further, since the language was constantly changing, many words went out of use, 
and do not occur in the literature as we have it. Thus many Derivatives survive of 
which the Primitive is lost. 

Finally, since all conscious word-formation is imitative, intermediate steps in deriva- 
tion were sometimes omitted, and occasionally apparent Derivatives occur for which 
no proper Primitive ever existed. 

ROOTS AND STEMS 

228. Roots 1 are of two kinds : — - 

1. Verbal, expressing ideas of action or condition (sensible phenomena). 

2. Pronominal, expressing ideas of position and direction. 

From verbal roots come all parts of speech except pronouns and certain 
particles derived from pronominal roots. 

229. Stems are either identical with roots or derived from them. 
They are of two classes: (1) Noun-stems (including Adjective- 
stems) and (2) Verb-stems. 

Note. — Noun-stems and verb-stems were not originally different (see p. 163), and 
in the consciousness of the Romans were often confounded ; but in general they were 
treated as distinct. 

230. Words are formed by inflection : (1) from roots inflected 
as stems; (2) from derived stems (see § 232). 

1 For the distinction between Roots and Stems, see §§ 24, 25. 



§§231-283] PRIMARY SUFFIXES 141 

231. A root used as a stem may appear — 

a. With a short vowel : as, due-is (dux), duc ; nec-is (nex); i-s, i-d. So 
in verbs : as, es-t, fer-t (cf. § 174. 2). 

b. With a long vowel x : as, luc-is (lux), lug ; pac-is (pax). So in verbs : 
diic-6, I-s for feis, from eo, ire ; fatur from fari. 

c. With reduplication : as, fur-fur, mar-mor, mur-mur. So in verbs : as, 
gi-gno (root gen), si-sto (root sta). 



DERIVED STEMS AND SUFFIXES 

232. Derived Stems are formed from roots or from other stems 
by means of suffixes. These are : — 

1. Primary : added to the root, or (in later times by analogy) to verb- 
stems. 

2. Secondary : added to a noun-stem or an adjective-stem. 

Both primary and secondary suffixes are for the most part pronominal 
roots (§ 228. 2), but a few are of doubtful origin. 

Note 1. — The distinction between primary and secondary suffixes, not being orig- 
inal (see § 227), is continually lost sight of in the development of a language. Suffixes 
once primary are used as secondary, and those once secondary are used as primary. 
Thus in hosticus (hosti + cus) the suffix -cus, originally ko- (see § 234. II. 12) primary, as 
in paucus, has become secondary, and is thus regularly used to form derivatives; but 
in pudicus, apricus, it is treated as primary again, because these words were really or 
apparently connected with verbs. So in English -able was borrowed as a primary 
suffix (tolerable, eatable), but also makes forms like clubbable, salable; -some is prop- 
erly a secondary suffix, as in toilsome, lonesome, but makes also such words as meddle- 
some, venturesome. 

Note 2. — It is the stem of the word, not the nominative, that is formed by the 
derivative suffix. For convenience, however, the nominative will usually be given. 

Primary Suffixes 

233. The words in Latin formed immediately from the root by 
means of Primary Suffixes, are few. For — 

1. Inherited words so formed were mostly further developed by the 
addition of other suffixes, as we might make an adjective lone-ly-some-ish, 
meaning nothing more than lone, lonely, or lonesome. 

2. By such accumulation of suffixes, new compound suffixes were formed 
which crowded out even the old types of derivation. Thus, — 

1 The difference in vowel-quantity in the same root (as duc) depends on inherited 
variations (see § 17. a). 



142 FORMATION OF WORDS [§§ 233, 234 

A word like mens, mentis, by the suffix on- (nom. -5), gave mentio, and this, 
being divided into men -f- tid, gave rise to a new type of abstract nouns in -ti5 : 
as, lega-ti5, embassy. 

A word like auditor, by the suffix io- (nom. -ius), gave rise to adjectives like 
auditor-ius, of which the neuter (auditorium) is used to denote the place where 
the action of the verb is performed. Hence tSrio- (nom. -torium), n., becomes a 
regular noun-suffix (§ 250. a). 

So in English such a word as suffocation gives a suffix -ation, and with this is 
made starvation, though there is no such word as starvate. 

234. Examples of primary stem-suffixes are: — 

I. Vowel suffixes : — 

1. o- (m., n.), a- (f.), found in nouns and adjectives of the first two declen- 
sions : as, sonus, ludus, vagus, toga (root teg). 

2. i-, as in ovis, avis ; in Latin frequently changed, as in rupes, or lost, as in 
scobs (scobis, root scab). 

3. u-, disguised in most adjectives by an additional i, as in sua-vis (for tsuad- 
vis, instead of f sua-dus, cf. ijdvs), ten-uis (root ten in tendo), and remaining alone 
only in nouns of the fourth declension, as acus (root ak, sharp, in acer, acies, 
w/ctfs), pecu, genu. 

II. Suffixes with a consonant : — 

1. to- (m., n.), ta- (f.), in the regular perfect passive participle, as tectus, 
tectum ; sometimes with an active sense, as in potus, pransus ; and found in a 
few words not recognized as participles, as putus (cf. purus), altus (alo). 

2. ti- in abstracts and rarely in nouns of agency, as messis, vestis, pars, 
mens. But in many the i is lost. 

3. tu- in abstracts (including supines), sometimes becoming concretes, as 
actus, luctus. 

4. no- (m., n.), na- (f.), forming perfect participles in other languages, and in 
Latin making adjectives of like participial meaning, which often become nouns, 
as magnus, plenus, regnum. 

5. ni-, in nouns of agency and adjectives, as ignis, segnis. 

6. nu-, rare, as in manus, pinus, cornu. 

7. mo- (ma-), with various meanings, as in animus, almus, firmus, forma. 

8. vo- (va-) (commonly uo-, ua-), with an active or passive meaning, as in 
equus (equos), arvum, cSnspicuus, exiguus, vacivus (vacuus). 

9. ro- (ra-), as in ager (stem ag-ro-), integer (cf. intactus), sacer, pleri-que (cf. 
plenus, pletus). 

10. Io- (la-), as in caelum (for fcaed-lum), chisel, exemplum, sella (for fsedla). 

11. yo- (ya-), forming gerundives in other languages, and in Latin making 
adjectives and abstracts, including many of the first and fifth declensions, as 
eximius, audacia, Florentia, pernicies. 

12. ko- (ka-), sometimes primary, as in pauci (cf. -nravpos), locus (for stlocus). 
In many cases the vowel of this termination is lost, leaving a consonant stem: 
as, apex, cortex, loquax. 



§§234-236] DEKIYATION OF NOUNS 143 

13. en- (on-, en-, on-), in nouns of agency and abstracts : as, aspergo, compago 
(-mis), gerd (-onis). 

14. men-, expressing means, often passing into the action itself : as, agmen, 
flumen, fulmen. 

15. ter- (tor-, ter-, tor-, tr-), forming nouns of agency : as, pater (i.e. protector), 
frater (i.e. supporter), orator. 

16. tro-, forming nouns of means: as, claustrum (claud), mulctrum (mulg). 

17. es- (os-), forming names of actions, passing into concretes: as, genus 
(generis), tempus (see § 15. 4). The infinitive in -ere (as in reg-ere) is a locative of 
this stem (-er-e for f-es-i). 

18. nt- (ont-, ent-), forming present active participles: as, legens, with some 
adjectives from roots unknown : as, frequens, recens. 

The above, with some suffixes given below, belong to the Indo-European 
parent speech, and most of them were not felt as living formations in the 
Latin. 

Significant Endings 

235. Both primary and secondary suffixes, especially in the 
form of compound suffixes, were used in Latin with more or less 
consciousness of their meaning. They may therefore be called 
Significant Endings. 

They form : (1) Nouns of Agency ; (2) Abstract Nouns (in- 
cluding Names of Actions) ; (3) Adjectives (active or passive). 

Note. — There is really no difference in etymology between an adjective and a 
noun, except that some formations are habitually used as adjectives and others as 
nouns (§20. b. N. 2). 

DERIVATION OF NOUNS 

Nouns of Agency 

236. Nouns of Agency properly denote the agent or doer of an 
action. But they include many words in which the idea of agency 
has entirely faded out, and also many words used as adjectives. 

a* Nouns denoting the agent or doer of an action are formed from roots 
or verb -stems by means of the suffixes — ■ 

-tor (-sor), M. ; -trix, f. 

can-tor, can-trix, singer ; can-ere (root can), to sing. 

vic-tor, vic-trix, conqueror (victorious) ; vinc-ere (vie), to conquer. 
ton-sor (for ftond-tor), tons-trix (for 

ttond-trlx), hair-cutter ; tond-ere (tond as root), to shear. 

peti-tor, candidate ; pet-ere (pet; peti- as stern), to seek. 



144 FORMATION OF WORDS [§§236-238 

By analogy -tor is sometimes added to noun-stems, but these may be stems 
of lost verbs : as, via-tor, traveller, from via, way (but cf . the verb invio). 

Note 1. — The termination -tor (-sor) has the same phonetic change as the supine 
ending -turn (-sum) , and is added to the same form of root or verb-stem as that ending. 
The stem-ending is tor- (§234. II. 15), which is shortened in the nominative. 

Note 2. — The feminine form is always -trix. Masculines in -sor lack the feminine, 
except expulsor (expultrix) and tonsor (tonstrix). 

h. t-, m. or f., added to verb-stems makes nouns in -es (-itis, -etis ; stem 
it-, et-) descriptive of a character : — 

prae-stes, -stitis, (verb-stern from root sta, stare, stand), guardian. 
teges, -etis (verb-stem tege-, cf. tego, cover), a coverer, a mat. 
pedes, -itis (pes, ped-is, foot, and i, root of ire, go), foot-soldier. 

c. -o (genitive -5nis, stem on-), m., added to verb-stems 1 indicates a person 
employed in some specific art or trade : — 

com-bibo (bib as root in bibd, bibere, drink), a pot-companion. 
gerd, -onis (ges in gerd, gerere, carry), a carrier. 

Note. — This termination is also used to form many nouns descriptive of personal 
characteristics (cf . § 255) . 

Names of Actions and Abstract Nouns 

237. Names of Actions are confused, through their termina- 
tions, with real abstract nouns (names of qualities), and with con- 
crete nouns denoting means and instrument 

They are also used to express the concrete result of an action 

(as often in English). 

Thus legio is literally the act of collecting, but comes to mean legion (the body 
of soldiers collected) ; cf. levy in English. 

238. Abstract Nouns and Names of Actions are formed from 
roots and verb-stems by means of the endings — 

a. Added to roots or forms conceived as roots — 

Nom. -or, m. -es, f. -us, n. 

Gen. -oris -is -eris or -oris 

Stem or- (earlier 6s-) i- er- (earlier e / Q s-) 

tim-or, fear ; timere, to fear. 

am-or, love; amare, to love. 

sed-es, seat ; sedere, to sit. 

caed-es, slaughter; caedere, to kill. 

genus, birth, race; gen, to be born (root of gigno, bear). 

1 So conceived, but perhaps this termination was originally added to noun-stems. 



§§ 238, 239] NAMES OF ACTIONS AND ABSTRACT NOUNS 145 

Note. — Many nouns of this class are formed by analogy from imaginary roots: 
as f acinus from a supposed root factn. 

b. Apparently added to roots or verb-stems — 

Nom. -io, f. -tio (-sio), f. -tura (-sura), f. -tus, m. 

Gen. -ionis -tionis (-sionis) -turae (-surae) -tus (-sus) 

Stem ion- tion- (sion-) tura- (sura-) tu- (su-) 

leg-i5, a collecting (levy), a legion; legere, to collect. 

reg-id, a direction, a region; regere, to direct. 

voca-tio, a calling ; vocare, to call. 

moli-ti5, a toiling ; moliri, to toil. 

scrip-tura, a writing ; scribere, to write. 

sen-sus (for tsent-tus), feeling; sentire, to feel. 

Note 1. — tio, -tura, -tus are added to roots or verb-stems precisely as -tor, with the 
same phonetic change (cf . § 236. a. n. l ). Hence they are conveniently associated with 
the supine stem (see § 178) . They sometimes form nouns when there is no correspond- 
ing verb in use : as, senatus, senate (cf . senex) ; mentio, mention (cf . mens) ; fetura, off- 
spring (cf. fetus) ; litteratura, literature (cf. litterae); consulates, consulship (cf. consul). 

Note 2. — Of these endings, -tus was originally primary (cf . § 234. II. 3.) ; -id is a com- 
pound formed by adding on- to a stem ending in a vowel (originally i) : as, dicio (cf . 
-dicus andVdicis) ; -tio is a compound formed by adding on- to stems in ti- : as, gradatio 
(cf . gradatim) ; -tura is formed by adding -ra, feminine of -rus, to stems in tu- : as, 
natiira from natus ; statura from status (cf. figura, of like meaning, from a simple u- 
stem, jfigu-s ; and maturus, Matiita) . ^ 

239. Nouns denoting acts, or means and results of acts, are 
formed from roots or verb-stems by the use of the suffixes — 

-men, n.; -mentum, n.; -monium, n. ; -rnonia, f. 

ag-men, line of march, band ; ag, root of agere, to lead. 

*"." ' ' T \ regi- (rege-), stem of regere, to direct 

regi-mentum, rule; j v b ' b 

certa-men, contest, battle ; certa-, stem of certare, to contend. 

Socolu-men, pillar; mo-men, movement; no-men, name; flu-men, stream. 

testi-monium, testimony ; testarl, to witness. 

queri-m5nia, complaint; queri, to complain. 

-monium and -m5nia are also used as secondary, forming nouns from other 
nouns and from adjectives : as, sancti-monia, sanctity (sanctus, holy) ; matri- 
monium, marriage (mater, mother). 

Note. — Of these endings, -men is primary (cf . § 234. II. 14) ; -mentum is a compound 
of men- and to-, and appears for the most part later in the language than -men : as, 
m5men, movement (Lucr.) ; m5mentum (later). So elementum is a development from 
L-M-N-a, l-m-n's (letters of the alphabet) , changed to elementa along with other nouns 
in -men. -monium and -mSnia were originally compound secondary suffixes formed 
from mon- (a by-form of men-), which was early associated with mo-. , Thus almus 



146 FORMATION OF WORDS [§§ 239, 241 

(stem almo-) , fost ering ; Almon, a river near Rome; alimonia, support. But the last 
was formed directly from aid when -nionia had become established as a supposed 
primary suffix. 

240. Nouns denoting means or instrument are formed from roots 

and verb-stems (rarely from noun-stems) by means of the neuter 

suffixes — 

-b ulum, -culum, -brum, -crum, -trurn 

pa-bulum, fodder ; pascere, to feed. 

sta-bulum, stall; stare, to stand. 

vehi-culum, wagon ; vehere, to carry. 

candela-brum, candlestick ; candela, candle (a secondary formation). 

sepul-crum, tomb ; sepelire, to bury. 

claus-trum (tclaud-trum), bar ; claudere, to shut. 

ara-trum, plough; ar Are, to plough. 

Note. trum (stem tro-) was an old formation from tor- (§234. II. 15), with the 

stem suffix o-, and -clum (stem clo- for tlo-) appears to be related ; -culum is the same 
as -clum; -bulum contains lo- (§ 234. II. 9, 10) and -brum is closely related. 

«. A few masculines and f eminines of the same formation occur as nouns 
and adjectives : — 

f a-bula, tale ; f ari, to speak. 

ridi-culus, laughable; ridere, to laugh. 

fa-ber, smith; facere, to make. 

late-bra, hiding-place ; latere, to hide. 

tere-bra, auger ; terere, to bore. 

mulc-tra, milk-pail ; mulgere, to milk. 

241. Abstract Nouns, mostly from adjective-stems, rarely from 
noun-stems, are formed by means of the secondary feminine suf- 
fixes — 

-ia (-ies), -tia (-ties), -tas, -tus, -txido 

audac-ia, boldness; audax, bold. 

pauper-ies, poverty ; pauper, poor. 

tristi-tia, sadness; tristis, sad. 

segni-ties, laziness; segnis, lazy. 

boni-tas, goodness; bonus, good. 

senec-tiis, age; senex, old. 

magni-tudo, greatness; rnagnus, great. 

1. In stems ending in o- or a- the stem-vowel is lost before -ia (as superb-ia) 
and appears as i before -tas, -tus, -tia (as in boni-tas, above). 

2. Consonant stems often insert i before -tas : as, loquax (stem loquac-), 
loquaci-tas ; but hones-tas, maies-tas (as if from old adjectives in -es), uber-tas, 
volup-tas. o after i is changed to e : as, pius (stem pio-), pie-tas ; socius, socie-tls. 



§241] 



NEUTER ABSTRACTS 



147 



a. In like manner -do and -go (r.) form abstract nouns, but are asso- 
ciated with verbs and apparently added to verb-stems : — 

cupi-do, desire, from cupere, to desire (as if from stem cupi-). 

dulce-do, sweetness (cf. dulcis, sweet), as if from a stem dulce-, cf. dulce-sc5. 

lumba-gd, lumbago (cf. lumbus, loin), as if from flumbd, -are. 

Note. — Of these, -ia is inherited as secondary (cf. § 234. II. 11). -tia is formed by 
adding -ia to stems with a t-suffix : as, militia, from miles (stem milit-) ; molestia 
from molestus ; dementia from Clemens ; whence by analogy, mali-tia, avari-tia. -tas 
is inherited, but its component parts, ta- + ti-, are found as suffixes in the same sense : 
as, senecta from senex; semen-tis from semen, -tus is tu- + ti-, cf. servitu-d5. -dd and 
-go appear only with long vowels, as from verb-stems, by a false analogy ; but -do is 
do- + on- : as, cupidus, cupido ; gravidus, gravedS (cf . grave-sco) ; albidus, albedo (cf . al- 
besco) ; formidus, hot, formido (cf. f ormidulosus) , (hot flash?) fear; -go is possibly co- + 
on-; cf. vorax, voragd, but cf. Cethegus. -tud5 is compounded of -do with tu-stems, 
which acquire a long vowel from association with verb-stems in u- (cf. volumen, from 
volvo) : as, consuetu-do, valetu-do, habitu-do, sollicitu-do ; whence servitudo (cf . servitus, 
-tutis). 

b. Neuter Abstracts, which easily pass into concretes denoting offices 
and groups, are formed from noun-stems and perhaps from verb-stems by 
means of the suffixes — 

-ium, -tium 



hospit-ium, hospitality, an inn ; 1 
colleg-ium, colleagueship, a college ; 
auspic-ium, soothsaying, an omen ; 
gaud-ium, joy ; 
effug-ium, escape; 
benefic-ium, a kindness ; 
desider-ium, longing; 

adverb-ium, adverb; 
interlun-ium, time of new moon ; 
regifug-ium, flight of the kings ; 
servi-tium, slavery, the slave class; 



hospes (gen. hospit-is), a guest. 

collega, a colleague. 

auspex (gen. auspic-is), a soothsayer, 

gaudere, to rejoice. 

effugere, to escape. 

benefacere, to benefit; cf. beneficus. 

desiderare, to miss, from f de-sides, out 

of place, of missing soldiers. 
ad verbum, [added] to a verb. 
inter lunas, between moons. 
regis fuga, flight of a king. 
servus, a slave. 



Yowel stems lose their vowel before -ium : as, colleg-ium, from collega. 

Note. ium is the neuter of the adjective suffix -ius. It is an inherited primary 

suffix, but is used with great freedom as secondary, -tium is formed like -tia, by add- 
ing -ium to stems with t : as, exit-ium, equit-ium (cf . exitus, equites) ; so, by analogy, 
calvitium, servitium (from calvus, servus). 

c. Less commonly, abstract nouns (which usually become concrete) are 
formed from noun-stems (confused with verb-stems) by means of the 
suffixes — 



1 The abstract meaning is put first. 



148 FORMATION OF WORDS [§§241-243 

-nia, f. ; -nium, -Hum, -cinium, n. 

pecu-nia, money (chattels) ; pecu, cattle. 

contici-nium, the hush of night ; conticescere, to become still. 

auxi-lium, help ; augere, to increase. 

latro-cinium, robbery ; latrS, robber (cf. latrocinor, rob, im- 

plying an adjective tlatr5cinus). 

For Diminutives and Patronymics, see §§ 243, 244, 



DERIVATION OF ADJECTIVES 

242. Derivative Adjectives, which often become nouns, are 
either Nominal (from nouns or adjectives) or Verbal (as from roots 
or verb-stems). 

Nominal Adjectives 

243. Diminutive Adjectives are usually confined to one gen- 
der, that of the primitive, and are used as Diminutive Nouns. 

They are formed by means of the suffixes — 

-ulus (-a, -urn), -olus (after a vowel), -cuius, -ellus, -illus 

riv-ulus, a streamlet; rivus, a brook. 

gladi-olus, a small sword; gladius, a sword. 

fili-olus, a little son ; filius, a son. 

fili-ola, a little daughter ; filia, a daughter. 

atri-olum, a little hall; atrium, a hall. 

homun-culus, a dwarf; hom5, a man. 

auri-cula, a little ear ; auris, an ear. 

munus-culum, a little gift ; munus, n., a gift. 

codic-illi, writing -tablets ; codex, a block. 

mis-ellus, rather wretched; miser, wretched. 

lib-ellus, a little book ; liber, a book. 

aure-olus (-a, -urn), golden; aureus (-a, -urn), golden. 
parv-olus (later parv-ulus), very small; parvus (-a, -um), little. 

maius-culus, somewhat larger ;• maior (old maids), greater. 

Note 1. — These diminutive endings are all formed by adding -lus to various stems. 
The formation is the same as that of -ulus in § 251. But these words became set- 
tled as diminutives, and retained their connection with nouns. So in English the 
diminutives whitish, reddish, are of the same formation as bookish and snappish. 
-cuius comes from -lus added to adjectives in -cus formed from stems in n- and s-: as, 
iuven-cus, Aurun-cus (cf. Aurunculeius) , pris-cus, whence the cu becomes a part of the 
termination, and the whole ending (-cuius) is used elsewhere, but mostly with n- and s- 
stems, in accordance with its origin. 

Note 2. — Diminutives are often used to express affection, pity, or contempt : as, 
deHciolae, little pet ; muliercula, a poor (weak) woman ; Graeculus, a miserable Greek. 



§§243-246] NOMINAL ADJECTIVES 149 

a. -cio, added to stems in n-, has the same diminutive force, but is used 
with masculines only : as, homun-cio, a dwarf (from homo, a man). 

244. Patronymics, indicating descent or relationship, are formed 
by adding to proper names the suffixes — 

-ades, -ides, -ides, -eus, m. ; -as, -is, -eis, f. 

These words, originally Greek adjectives, have almost all become nouns 
in Latin : — 

Atlas: Atlanti-ades, Mercury; Atlant-ides (Gr. plur.), the Pleiads. 

Scipid : Scipi-ades, son of Scipio. 

Tyndareus : Tyndar-ides, Castor or Pollux, son of Tyndarus ; Tyndar-is, 

Helen, daughter of Tyndarus. 
Anchises: Anchisi-ades, JEneas, son of Anchises. 
Theseus : Thes-Ides, son of Theseus. 
Tydeus : Tyd-ides, Diomedes, son of Tydeus. 
Oileus : Aiax Oll-eus, son of Oileus. 
Cisseus : Cisse-is, Hecuba, daughter of Cisseus. 
Thaumas : Thaumant-ias, Iris, daughter of Thaumas. 
Hesperus : Hesper-ides (from Hesper-is, -idis), plur., the daughters of Hesperus, 

the Hesperides. 

245. Adjectives meaning/^ 11 of, prone to, are formed from noun- 
stems with the suffixes — 

-osus, -lens, -lentus 

fluctu-osus, billowy ; fluctus, a billow. 

form-dsus, beautiful ,* forma, beauty. 

pericul-osus, dangerous; periculum, danger. 

pesti-lens, pesti-lentus, pestilent; pestis, pest. 

vmo-lentus, vm-5sus, given to drink ; vinum, wine. 

246. Adjectives meaning provided with are formed from nouns 
by means of the regular participial endings — 

-tus, -atus, -itus, -iitus 

funes-tus, deadly ; funus (st. f finer-, older fun e / s-), death. 

hones-tus, honorable; honor, hojwr. 

faus-tus (for tfaves-tus), favorable ; favor, favor. 

barb-atus, bearded ; barba, a beard. 

turr-itus, turreted; turris, a tower. 

corn-utus, horned; cornu, a horn. 

Note. atus, -itus, -iitus, imply reference to an imaginary verb-stem ; -tus is added 

directly to nouns without any such reference. 



150 FORMATION OF WORDS [§§ 247-249 

247. Adjectives of various meanings, but signifying in gen- 
eral made of or belonging to, are formed from nouns by means of 
the suffixes — 

-eus, -ius, -aceus, -Icius, -aneus (-neus), -ticus 

aur-eus, golden; aurum, gold. 

patr-ius, paternal ; pater, a father. 

uxor-ius, uxorious ; uxor, a wife. 

ros-aceus, of roses ; rosa, a rose. 

later-icius, of brick ; later, a brick. 

praesent-aneus, operating instantly ; praesens, present. 

extr-aneus, external; extra, without. 

subterr-aneus, subterranean ; sub terra, underground. 

salig-neus, of willow ; salix, willow. 

vola-ticus, winged (volatus, a flight) ; volare, to fly. 

domes-ticus, of the house, domestic ; domus, a house. 

silva-ticus, sylvan ; silva, a wood. 

Note. ius is originally primitive (§ 234. II. 11) ; -eus corresponds to Greek -eios, 

-eos, and has lost a y-sound (cf . yo-, § 234. II. 11) ; -icius and -aceus are formed by add- 
ing -ius and -eus to stems in i-c-, a-c- (suffix ko-, § 234. II. 12) ; -neus is no- + -eus 
(§ 234. II. 4) ; -aneus is formed by adding -neus to a-stems ; -ticus is a formation with 
-eus (cf. hosti-cus with silva-ticus), and has been affected by the analogy of participial 
stems in to- (nominative -tus) . 

248. Adjectives denoting pertaining to are formed from noun- 
stems with the suffixes — 

-alis, -aris, -elis, -Ilis, -ulis 
natur-alis, natural; natura, nature. 

popul-aris, fellow-countryman; populus, a people. 

patru-elis, cousin; patruus, uncle. 

host-ilis, hostile ; hostis, an enemy. 

cur-ulis, curule; currus, a chariot. 

Note. — The suffixes arise from adding -lis (stemli-) to various vowel stems. The 
long vowels are due partly to confusion between stem and suffix (cf . vita-lis, from 
vita-, with reg-alis) , partly to confusion with verb-stems : cf . Aprilis (aperire) , edulis 
(edere) , with senilis (senex) . -ris is an inherited suffix, but in most of these formations 
-aris arises by differentiation for -alis in words containing an 1 (as milit-aris) . 

249. Adjectives with the sense of belonging to are formed by 
means of the suffixes — 

-anus, -enus, -inus; -as, -ensis ; -eus, -acus (-acus), -icus ; -eus, 
-eius, -icius 

1. So from common nouns : — 
mont-anus, of the mountains ; mons (stem monti-), mountain. 

veter-anus, veteran; vetus (stem veter-), old. 

anteluc-anus, before daylight; ante lucem, before light. 



§§ 249, 250] 



NOMINAL ADJECTIYES 



151 



terr-enus, earthly ; 

ser-enus, calm (of evening stillness) ; 

coll-mus, of a hill ; 

div-mus, divine;- 

libert-mus, of the class offreedmen; 

cui-as, of what country f 

infim-as, of the lowest rank ; 



terra, earth. 

serus, late. 

collis, hill. 

divus, god. 

libertus, one'' s freedman. 

quis, who f 

infimus, lowest. 



for-ensis, of a market-place, or the Forum ; forum, a market-place. 



civi-cus, civic, of a citizen ; 

f ull5n-icus, of a fuller ; 

mer-acus, pure ; 

femin-eus, of a woman, feminine; 

lact-eus, milky ; 

pleb-eius, of the commons, plebeian; 

patr-icius, patrician ; 



civis, a citizen. 
fullo, a fuller. 
merum, pure wine. 
feniina, a woman. 
lac, milk (stem lacti-). 
plebes, the commons. 
pater, father. 



2. But especially from proper nouns to denote belonging to or coming from : 

Rom-anus, Roman; Roma, Rome. 

Sull-ani, Sulla's veterans ; Sulla. 

Cyzic-eni, Cyzicenes, people of Cyzicus ; Cyzicus. 

Ligur-mus, of Liguria ; Liguria. 

Arpin-as, of A rpinum; Arpinum. 

Sicili-ensis, Sicilian; Sicilia, Sicily. 

Ili-acus, Trojan (a Greek form) ; Ilium, Troy. 

Platon-icus, Platonic; Plat5. 
Aquil-eius, a Roman name ; ) 

Aquil-eia, a town in Italy ; ) qU1 a * 

a. Many derivative adjectives with these endings have by usage become 
nouns : — 

Silv-anus, m., a god of the woods ; silva, a wood. 

membr-ana, f., skin; membrum, limb. 

Aemili-anus, m., name of Scipio Africanus ; Aemilia (gens). 



lanius, butcher. 

fAufidius (Aufidus). 

incola, an inhabitant. 

caecus, blind. 

ruo, fall (no noun existing). 

doctor, teacher. 



lani-ena, f., a butcher's stall ; 

Aufidi-enus, m., a Roman name ; 

inquil-inus, m., a lodger ; 

Caec-ma, used as m., a Roman name ; 

ru-ina, f., a fall; 

doctr-ina, f., learning ; 

Note. — Of these terminations, -anus, -enus, -inus are compounded from -nus added 
to a stem-vowel : as, area, arcanus ; collis, collinus. The long vowels come from a con- 
fusion with verb-stems (as in ple-nus, fini-tus, tribu-tus), and from the noun-stem in a- : 
as, arcanus. A few nouns occur of similar formation, as if from verb-stems in o- and 
u-: as, col5nus (colo, cf. incola), patronus (cf. patro, -are), tribunus (cf. tribuS, tribus), 
Portunus (cf. portus), Vacuna (cf. vac5, vacuus). 

250. Other adjectives meaning in a general way belonging to 
(especially of places and times) are formed with the suffixes — 



152 FORMATION OF WORDS [§§ 250, 251 

-ter (-tris), -ester (-estris), -timus, -nus, -ernus, -urnus, -temus (-turnus) 

palus-ter, of the marshes ; palus, a marsh. 

pedes-ter, of the foot-soldiers ; pedes, a footman. 

semes-tris, lasting six months ; sex menses, six months. 

silv-ester, silv-estris, woody ; silva, a wood. 

fmi-timus, neighboring, on the borders ; finis, an end. 

mari-timus, of the sea ; mare, sea. 

ver-nus, vernal; ver, spring. 

hodi-ernus, of to-day ; hodie, to-day. 

di-urnus, daily ; dies, day. 

hes-ternus, of yesterday ; heri (old hesi), yesterday. 

diu-turnus, lasting ; diu, long (in time). 

Note. — Of these, -ester is formed by adding tri- (cf. tro-, § 234. II. 16) to stems in 
t- or d-. Thus fpedet-tri- becomes pedestri-, and others follow the analogy, -nus is an 
inherited suffix (§ 234. II. 4). -ernus and -urnus are formed by adding -nus to s-stems: 
as, diur-nus (for fdius-nus), and hence, by analogy, hodiernus (hodie). By an extension 
of the same principle were formed the suffixes -ternus and -turnus from words like 
paternus and nocturnus. 

a. Adjectives meaning belonging to are formed from nouns by means of 
the suffixes-™ 

-arius, -torius (-sorius) 

ordin-arius, regular ; ordo, rank, order. 

argent-arius, of silver or money ; argentum, silver. 

extr-arius, stranger ; extra, outside. 

meri-torius, profitable ; meritus, earned. 

devor-sorius, of an inn (cf. § 254. 5) ; devorsus, turned aside. 

Note 1. — Here -ius (§ 234. II. 11) is added to shorter forms in -aris and -or : as, pecu- 
liarius (from peculiaris) , bellatorius (from bellator) . 

Note 2. — These adjectives are often fixed as nouns (see § 254). 

Verbal Adjectives 

251. Adjectives expressing the action of the verb as a quality 
or tendency are formed from real or apparent verb-stems with the 
suffixes — 

-ax, -idus, -ulus, -vus (-uus, -ivus, -tivus) 

-ax denotes & faulty or aggressive tendency; -tivus is oftener passive. 

pugn-ax, pugnacious ; prignare, to fight. 

aud-ax, bold ; audere, to dare. 

cup-idus, eager ; cupere, to desire. 

bib-ulus, thirsty (as dry earth etc.) ; bibere, to drink. 

proter-vus, violent, wanton; proterere, to trample. 



§§ 251-253] VERBAL ADJECTIVES 153 

noc-uus (noc-ivus), hurtful, injurious; nocere, to do harm. 

recid-ivus, restored ; recidere, to fall back. 

cap-tivus, captive; m., a prisoner of war ; capere, to take. 

Note. — Of these, -ax is a reduction of -acus (stem-vowel a- + -cus), become inde- 
pendent and used with verb-stems. Similar forms in -ex, -ox, -ix, and -ux are found 
or employed in derivatives: as, imbrex, m., a rain-tile (from imber); senex, old (from 
seni-s) ; f erdx, fierce (from ferus) ; atrox, savage (from ater, black) ; celdx, f., a yacht 
(cf. cello) ; felix, happy, originally fertile (cf . felo, suck); fiducia, f., confidence (as 
from ffidux) ; cf. also victrix (from victor). So manducus, chevnng (from mando). 

-idus is no doubt denominative, as in herbidus, grassy (from herba, herb) ; tumidus, 
swollen (cf. tumu-lus, hill; tumul-tus, uproar); callidus, tough, cunning (cf. callum, 
tough flesh) ; mucidus, slimy (cf . mucus, slime) ; tabidus, icasting (cf. tabes, wasting 
disease). But later it was used to form adjectives directly from verb-stems. 

-ulus is the same suffix as in diminutives, but attached to verb-stems. Cf . aemulus, 
rivalling (cf . imitor and imagS) ; sedulus, sitting by, attentive (cf . domi-seda, home- 
staying, and sedo, set, settle, hence calm) ; pendulus, hanging (cf . pondo, ablative, in 
weight; perpendiculum, a plummet ; appendix, an addition); stragulus, covering (cf. 
strages) ; legulus, a picker (cf. sacri-legus, a picker up of things sacred). 

-vus seems originally primary (cf. § 234. II. 8), but -Ivus and -tivus have become 
secondary and are used with nouns: as, aestivus, of summer (from aestus, heat); 
tempestivus, timely (from tempus) ; cf. domes-ticus (from domus). 

252. Adjectives expressing passive qualities, but occasionally 
active, are formed by means of the suffixes — 

-ilis, -bilis, -ius, -tilis (-silis) 

frag-ilis, frail ; frangere (frag), to break. 

no-bilis, well known, famous ; ndscere (gno), to know. 

exim-ius, choice, rare (cf. e-greg-ius) ; eximere, to take out, select. 

ag-ilis, active ; agere, to drive. 

hab-ilis, handy ; habere, to hold. 

al-tilis, fattened (see note) ; alere, to nourish. 

Note. — Of these, -ius is primary, but is also used as secondary (cf . § 241. b. n.) . -ilia 
is both primary (as in agilis, fragilis) and secondary (as in similis, like, cf . 6/llos, 6'yuaXos, 
English same) ; -bilis is in some way related to -bulum and -brum (§ 240. n.) ; in -tilis 
and -silis, -lis is added to to- (so-), stem of the perfect participle: as, fossilis, dug up 
(from fossus, dug) ; volatilis, vnnged (from volatus, flight). 

253. Verbal Adjectives that are Participial in meaning are 
formed with the suffixes — 

-ndus, -bundus, -cundus 
a. -ndus (the same as the gerundive ending) forms a few active or reflex- 
ive adjectives : — 

secu-ndus, second (the following) , favorable ; sequi, to follow. 
rotu-ndus, round (whirling) x ; rotare, to whirl. 

1 Cf. volvendis mensibus (Aen. i. 269), in the revolving months; cf. oriundi ab Sabinis 
(Liv. i. 17), sprung from the Sabines, where oriundi = orti. 



154 FORMATION OF WORDS [§§ 253, 254 

6. -bundus, -cundus, denote a continuance of the act or quality expressed 
by the verb : — 

vita-bundus, avoiding ; vitare, to shun. 

treme-bundus, trembling ; tremere, to tremble. 

mori-bundus, dying, at the point of death ; moriri, to die. 

fa-cundus, eloquent; fan, to speak. 

fe-cundus, fruitful ; root fe, nourish. 

ira-cundus, irascible ; cf . irasci, to be angry. 

Note. — These must have been originally nominal: as in the series, rubus, red 
bush; rubidus (but no frubicus), ruddy; Rubicon, Red River (cf. Mini5, a river of 
Etruria; Minius, a river of Lusitania); rubicundus (as in averruncus, homun-culus) . 
So turba, commotion; turbS, a top; turbidus, roily , etc. Cf. apexabo, longabd, gravedo, 
dulcedo. 

c. Here belong also the participial suffixes -minus, -mnus (cf. Greek 
-/Acvos), from which are formed a few nouns in which the participial force is 
still discernible : — 1 

fe-mina, woman (the nourisher) ; root fe, nourish. 

alu-mnus, a foster-child, nursling ; alere, to nourish. 

Nouns with Adjective Suffixes 

254. Many fixed forms of the Nominal Adjective suffixes men- 
tioned in the preceding sections, make Nouns more or less regu- 
larly used in particular senses : — 

1. -arius, person employed about anything : — 

argent-arius, m. , silversmith, broker, from argentum, silver. 

Corinthi-arius, m. , worker in Corinthian bronze (sarcastic nickname of Augustus), 

from (aes) Corinthium, Corinthian bronze. 
centon-arius, m., ragman, from cents, patchwork. 

2. -aria, thing connected with something : — 

argent-aria, f., bank, from argentum, silver. 
aren-ariae, r. plural, sandpits, from arena, sand. 
Asin-aria, f., name of a play, from asinus, ass. 2 

3. -arium, place of a thing (with a few of more general meaning) : — 
aer-arium, n. , treasury, from aes, copper. 

tepid-arium, n. , warm bath, from tepidus, warm. 
sud-arium, n., a towel, cf. sudd, -are, sweat. 
sal-arium, n., salt money, salary, from sal, salt. 
calend-arium, n., a note-book^ from calendae, calends. 

1 Cf . § 163. footnote 1. 

2 Probably an adjective with fabula, play, understood. 



§254] NOUNS WITH ADJECTIVE SUFFIXES 155 

4. -toria (-soria) : — 

Agita-tdria, f. , a play of Plautus, The Carter, from agitator, 
vor-soria, f., a tack (nautical), from vorsus, a turn. 

5. -torium (-sorium), place of action (with a few of more general meaning) : 
devor-sorium, n. , an inn, as from devortd, turn aside. 

audi-torium, n., a lecture-room, as from audi5, hear. 
ten-torium, n. , a tent, as from tendo, stretch. 
tec-t5rium, n., plaster, as from tego, tectus, cover. 
por-t5rium, n. , toll, cf . porto, carry, and portus, harbor. 

6. -lie, animal-stall : — 

bov-ile, n. , cattle-stall, from b5s, bSvis, ox, cow. 
ov-ile, n., sheepfold, from ovis, stem ovi-, sheep. 

7. -al for -ale, thing connected with the primitive : — 
capit-al, n., headdress, capital crime, from caput, head. 

penetr-ale (especially in plural), n., inner apartment, cf. penetro, enter. 
Saturn-alia, n. plural (the regular form for names of festivals), feast of Sat- 
urn, from Saturnus. 

8. -etum, n. (cf. -atus, -iitus, see § 246. n.), -turn, place of a, thing, especially 
with names of trees and plants to designate where these grow : — 

querc-etum, n. , oak grove, from quercus, oak. 
ollv-etum, n., olive grove, from oliva, an olive tree. 
salic-tum, n., a willow thicket, from salix, a willow tree. 
Argil-etum, n. , The Clay Pit, from argilla, clay. 

9. -cus (sometimes with inserted i, -icus), -Icus, in any one of the gen- 
ders, with various meanings : — 

vili-cus, m. , a steward, vili-ca, f. , a stewardess, from villa, farm-house. 

fabr-ica, f. , a workshop, from f aber, workman. 

am-icus, m., am-ica, f., friend, cf. amare, to love. 

bubul-cus, m., ox-tender, from bub-ulus^ diminutive, cf. b5s, ox. 

cant-icum, n. , song, from cantus, act of singing. 

rubr-ica, f. , red paint, from ruber, red. 

10. -eus, -ea, -eum, with various meanings : — 

alv-eus, m. , a trough, from alvus, the belly. 

capr-ea, f., a wild she-goat, from caper, he-goat. 

flamm-eum, n., a bridal veil, from flamma, flame, from its color. 

11. -ter (stem tri-), -aster, -ester: — 

eques-ter, m., knight, for fequet-ter. 

sequ-ester, m., a stake-holder, from derivative of sequor, follow. 

ole-aster, m. , wild olive, from olea, an olive tree. 



156 FORMATION OF WORDS [§§ 255-259 

IRREGULAR DERIVATIVES 

255. The suffix -o (genitive -onis, stem on-), usually added to 
verb-stems (see § 236. c), is sometimes used with noun-stems to 
form nouns denoting possessed of. These were originally adjec- 
tives expressing quality or character, and hence often appear as 
proper names : — 

epulae, a feast ; epul-5, afeaster. 

nasus, a nose; nas-o, with a large nose (also as a proper name). 
volus (in bene-volus), wishing ; vol-5nes (plural), volunteers. 
frons, forehead ; front-o, big-head (also as a proper name). 
curia, a curia ; curi-5, head of a curia (also as a proper name). 
restis, a rope ; resti-6, a rope-maker. 

a* Rarely suffixes are added to compound stems imagined, but not used 
in their compound form : — 

ad-verb-ium, adverb; ad, to, and verbum, verb, but without the intervening 

tadverbus. 
lati-f und-ium, large estate ; latus, wide, fundus, estate, but without the inter- 
vening flatifundus. 
su-ove-taur-ilia, a sacrifice of a swine, a sheep, and a bull ; sus, swine, ovis, 
sheep, taurus, bull, where the primitive would be impossible in Latin, 
though such formations are common in Sanskrit. 

DERIVATION OF VERBS 

256. Verbs may be classed as Primitive or Derivative. 

1 . Primitive Verbs are those inherited by the Latin from the parent speech. 

2. Derivative Yerbs are those formed in the development of the Latin 
as a separate language. 

257. Derivative Verbs are of two main classes : — 

1. Denominative Verbs, formed from nouns or adjectives. 

2. Verbs apparently derived from the stems of other verbs. 

Denominative Verbs 

258. Verbs were formed in Latin from almost every form of 
noun-stem and adjective-stem. 

259. 1. Verbs of the First Conjugation are formed directly 
from a-stems, regularly with a transitive meaning: as, fuga, 
flight ; fugare, put to flight. 



§§ 269-261] DENOMINATIVE VEEBS 157 

2. Many verbs of the First Conjugation are formed from o- 
stems, changing the o- into a-. These are more commonly tran- 
sitive : — 

stimulo, -are, to incite, from stimulus, a goad (stem stimulo-). 

aequo, -are, to make even, from aequus, even (stem aequo-). 

hiberno, -are, to pass the winter, from hlbernus, of the winter (stem hibemo-). 

alb5, -are, to whiten, from albus, white (stem albo-). 

pio, -are, to expiate, from pius, pure (stem pio-). 

nov5, -are, to renew, from novus, new (stem novo-). 

arm5, -are, to arm, from arma, arms (stem armo-). 

damnd, -are, to injure, from damnum, injury (stem damno-). 

3. A few verbs, generally intransitive, are formed by analogy 

from consonant and i- or u-stems, adding a to the stem : — 1 

vigilo, -are, to watch, from vigil, awake. 

exsulo, -are, to be in exile, from exsul, an exile. 

auspicor, -ari, to take the auspices, from auspex (stem auspic-), augur. 

pulvero, -are, to turn (anything) to dust, from pulvis (stem pulver-for pulvis-), 

dust. 
aestuo, -are, to surge, boil, from aestus (stem aestu-), tide, seething. 
Iev5, -are, to lighten, from levis (stem levi-), light. 

260. A few verbs of the Second Conjugation (generally in- 
transitive) are recognizable as formed from noun-stems ; but most 
are inherited, or the primitive noun-stem is lost : — 

albeo, -ere, to be white, from albus (stem alb%-)> white. 
caneo, -ere, to be hoary, from canus (stem can%~), hoary, 
clareo, -ere, to shine, from clarus, bright. 
claude5, -ere, to be lame, from claudus, lame. 
alge5, -ere, to be cold, cf. algidus, cold. 

261. Some verbs of the Third Conjugation in-uo,-uere, are formed 

from noun-stems in u- and have lost a consonant i : — 

statuo (for tstatu-yo), -ere, to set up, from status, position. 

metuo, -ere, to fear, from metus, fear. 

acu5, -ere, to sharpen, from acus, needle. 

arguo, -ere, to clear up, from inherited stem fargu-, bright (cf. dpyvpos). 

Note. — Many verbs in u are inherited, being formed from roots in u: as, fluo, 
fluere, flow ; so-lvo (for fse-luo, cf. \vu)), solvere, dissolve. Some roots have a parasitic 
u : as, loquor, locutus, speak. 

1 The type of all or most of the denominative formations in §§ 259-262 was inherited, 
but the process went on in the development of Latin as a separate language. 



158 FORMATION OF WORDS [§§ 262, 263 

262. Many I-verbs or verbs of the Fourth Conjugation are 
formed from i-stems : — 

molior, -In, to toil, from mSles (-is), mass. 
flnid, -ire, to bound, from finis, end. 
sitid, -Ire, to thirst, from sitis, thirst. 
stabilid, -ire, to establish, from stabilis, stable. 

a* Some arise by confusion from other stems treated as i-stems : — 
bullid, -ire, to boil, from bulla (stem bulla-), bubble. 
condio, -ire, to preserve, from condus (stem condo-), storekeeper. 
InsaniS, -Ire, to rave, from Insanus (stem Insano-), mad. 
gestiS, -Ire, to show wild longing, from gestus (stem gestu-), gesture. 

Note. — Some of this form are of doubtful origin : as, Srdior, begin, cf . ordo and 
exordium. The formation is closely akin to that of verbs in -id of the third conjuga- 
tion (p. 102). 

b. Some are formed with -id from consonant stems : — 
custodio, -Ire, to guard, from cust5s (stem custSd-), guardian. 
fulguriS, -Ire, to lighten, from fulgur, lightning. 

Note. — Here probably belong the so-called desideratives in-urio (see § 263. 4. n.). 

Verbs from Other Verbs 

263. The following four classes of verbs regularly derived 
from other verbs have special meanings connected with their 
terminations. 

Note. — These classes are all really denominative in their origin, but the forma- 
tions had become so associated with actual verbs that new derivatives were often 
formed directly from verbs without the intervention of a noun-stem. 

1. Inceptives or Inchoatives add -sco 1 to the present stem of verbs. 
They denote the beginning of an action and are of the Third Conjuga- 
tion. Of some there is no simple verb in existence : — 

cale-sc5, grow warm, from caleo, be warm. 

laba-sco, begin to totter, from lab5, totter. 

scl-sco, determine, from scio, know. 

con-cupl-sco, conceive a desire for, from cupio, desire. 

ale-sco, grow, from alo, feed. 

So Ira-scor, get angry ; cf . Ira-tus. 

iuvene-sco, grow young ; cf. iuvenis, young man. 

mlte-sc5, grow mild; cf. mitis, mild. 

vespera-scit, it is getting late ; cf . vesper, evening. 

1 For -sco in primary formation, see § 176. b. 1. 



§ 263] VERBS FROM OTHER VERBS 159 

Note. — Inceptives properly have only the present stem, but many use the perfect 
and supine systems of simple verbs: as, calesco, grow warm, calui; ardesco, blaze 
forth, arsi; proficlscor, set out, profectus. 

2. Intensives or Iteratives are formed from the Supine stem and end 
in -to or -ito (rarely -so). They denote & forcible or repeated action, but 
this special sense often disappears. Those derived from verbs of 
the First Conjugation end in -ito (not -ato). 

iac-to, hurl, from iaci5, throw. 
dormi-to, be sleepy, from dormia, sleep. 
vol-it5, flit, from vol5, fly. 
vendi-to, try to sell, from vendo, sell. 
quas-s5, shatter, from quatio, shake. 

They are of the first conjugation, and are properly denominative. 

a. Compound suffixes -tito, -sito, are formed with a few verbs. These 
are probably derived from other Iteratives ; thus, cantito may come from 
canto, iterative of cano, sing. 

b* Another form of Intensives — sometimes called Meditatives, or verbs 
of practice — ends in -esso (rarely -isso). These denote a certain energy or 
eagerness of action rather than its repetition : — 
cap-essd, lay hold on, from capio, take. 
fac-ess5, do (with energy), from facio, do. 
pet-esso, pet-issd, seek (eagerly), from pet5, seek. 
These are of the third conjugation, usually having the perfect and 
supine of the fourth : — 

arcesso, arcessere, arcessivi, arcessitum, summon. 
lacessd, lacessere, lacessivi, lacessitum, provoke. 
Note. — The verbs in -esso, -isso, show the same formation as levasso, impetrassere, 
iudicassit, etc. (§ 183. 5), but its origin is not fully explained. 

3. Diminutives end in -illo, and denote a feeble or petty action : — 
cav-illor, jest, cf . cavilla, raillery. 

cant-illo, chirp or warble, from canto, sing. 
Note. — Diminutives are formed from verb-stems derived from real or supposed 
diminutive nouns. 

4. Desideratives end in -turio (-surio), and express longing or wish- 
ing. They are of the fourth conjugation, and only two are in com- 
mon use : — 

par-turi5, be in labor, from pario, bring forth. 
e-surio (for ted-turio), be hungry, from edo, eat. 
Others are used by the dramatists. 

Note. — Desideratives are probably derived from some noun of agency: as, emp- 
turid, wish to buy, from Smptor, buyer. Vis5, go to see, is an inherited desiderative of 
a different formation. 



160 FORMATION OF WORDS [§§ 264, 265 

COMPOUND WORDS 

264. A Compound Word is one whose stem is made up of two 
or more simple stems. 

a. A final stem-vowel of the first member of the compound usually dis- 
appears before a vowel, and usually takes the form of i before a consonant. 
Only the second member receives inflection. 1 

b. Only noun-stems can be thus compounded. A preposition, however, 
often becomes attached to a verb. 

265. New stems are formed by Composition in three ways : — 

1. The second part is simply added to the first : — 

su-ove-taurilia (sus, ovis, taurus), the sacrifice of a swine, a sheep, and a bull 

(cf. § 255. a). 
septen-decim (septem, decern), seventeen. 

2. The first part modifies the second as an adjective or adverb 
(Determinative Compounds) : — 

lati-fundium (latus, fundus), a large landed estate. 
omni-potens (omnis, potens), omnipotent 

3. The first part has the force of a case, and the second a verbal 
force (Objective Compounds): — 

agri-cola (ager, field, fcola akin to cold, cultivate), a farmer. 
armi-ger (arma, arms, fger akin to gero, carry), armor-bearer. 
corni-cen (cornu, horn, teen akin to cano, sing), horn-blower. 
carni-fex (caro, flesh, tfex akin to faci5, make), executioner. 

a. Compounds of the above kinds, in which the last word is a noun, 
may become adjectives, meaning possessed of the quality denoted: — 
ali-pes (ala, iving, -pes, foot), wing-footed. 
magn-animus (magnus, great, animus, soul), great-souled. 
an-ceps (amb-, at both ends, caput, head), double. 

Note. — Many compounds of the above classes appear only in the form of some 
further derivative, the proper compound not being found in Latin. 

1 The second part generally has its usual inflection ; but, as this kind of composi- 
tion is in fact older than inflection, the compounded stem sometimes has an inflection 
of its own (as, cornicen, -cinis ; lucifer, -feri ; iudex, -dicis), from stems not occurring in 
Latin. Especially do compound adjectives in Latin take the form of i-stems: as, 
animus, exanimis; norma, abnormis (see § 73) . In composition, stems regularly have 
their uninflected form : as, igni-spicium, divining by fire. But in o- and a-stems the 
final vowel of the stem appears as i-, as in ali-pes (from ala, stem ala-) ; and i- is so 
common a termination of compounded stems, that it is often added to stems which do 
not properly have it: as, flori-comus, flower-crowned (from flos, flor-is, and coma, hair). 



§§ 266, 267] SYNTACTIC COMPOUNDS 161 

Syntactic Compounds 

266. In many apparent compounds, complete words — not 
stems — have grown together in speech. These are not strictly 
compounds in the etymological sense. They are called Syntac- 
tic Compounds. Examples are : — 

a. Compounds of facio, facto, with an actual or formerly existing noun- 
stem confounded with a verbal stem in e-. These are causative in force : 

consue-faci5, habituate (cf. consue-sco, become accustomed). 
cale-faci5, cale-facto, to heat (cf. cale-sc5, grow warm). 

b. An adverb or noun combined with a verb : — 
bene-dic5 (bene, well, dico, speak), to bless. 
satis-faciS (satis, enough, facio, do), to do enough (for). 

c. Many apparent compounds of stems : — 
fide-iubeo (fide, surety, iubeo, command), to give surety. 
man-suetus (manui, to the hand, suetus, accustomed), tame. 
Marci-por (Marci puer), slave of Marcus. 

Iuppiter (flu, old vocative, and pater), father Jove. 
anim-adverto (airimum adverto), attend to, punish. 

d. A few phrases forced into the ordinary inflections of nouns : — 
pro-consul, proconsul (for pro consule, instead of a consul). 
trium-vir, triumvir (singular from trium virorum) . 

septen-tri5, the Bear, a constellation (supposed singular of septem triSnes, 
the Seven Plough-Oxen). 
In all these cases it is to be observed that words, not stems, are united. 

267. Many syntactic compounds are formed by prefixing a 
Particle to some other part of speech. 

a. Prepositions are often prefixed to Verbs. In these compounds the 
prepositions retain their original adverbial sense : — 
a, ab, away ; a-mittere, to send away. 
ad, to, towards : af-ferre (ad-fer5), to bring. 
ante, before : ante-ferre, to prefer ; ante-cellere, to excel. 
circum, around: circum-munire, to fortify completely. 
com-, con- (cum), together or forcibly: con-ferre, to bring together; col- 

locare, to set firm. 
de, down, utterly: de-spicere, despise; de-struere, destroy 
e, ex, out: ef-ferre (ec-fer5), to carry forth, uplift. 
in (with verbs), in, on, against : In-ferre, to bear against, 
inter, between, to pieces : inter-rumpere, to interrupt. 
ob, towards, to meet: of-ferre, to offer; ob- venire, to meet. 
sub, under, up from under: sub-struere, to build beneath; sub-ducere, to leadup. 
super, upon, over and above : super-fluere, to overflow. 



162 FORMATION OF WORDS 

Note 1. — In such compounds, however, the prepositions sometimes have their 
ordinary force as prepositions, especially ad, in, circum, trans, and govern the case of 
a noun: as, transire flumen, to cross a river (see § 388. b). 

Note 2. — Short a of the root is weakened to i before one consonant, to e before 
two: as, facio, cSnficio, confectus; iacio, eicid, eiectus. But long a is retained: as, 
peractus. 

b* Verbs are also compounded with the following inseparable particles, 
which do not appear as prepositions in Latin : — 

amb- (am-, an-), around: amb-ire, to go about (cf. afupL, about). 

dis-, di-, asunder, apart : dis-cedere, to depart (cf . duo, two) ; di-videre, to 

divide. 
por-, forward: por-tendere, to hold forth, predict (cf. porrS, forth). 
red-, re-, back, again: red-ire, to return; re-cludere, to open (from claudS, 

shut) ; re-ficere, to repair (make again), 
sed-, se-, apart : se-cern5, to separate ; cf . sed-iti5, a going apart, secession 

(eo, ire, to go). 

c. Many Verbals are found compounded with a preposition, like the 
verbs to which they correspond : — 

per-fuga, deserter; cf. per-fugid. 

tra-dux, vine-branch; cf. tra-dtico (trans-duco). 

ad-vena, stranger; cf. ad-veni5. 

con-iux (con-iunx), spouse; cf. con-iung5. 

in-dex, pointer out; cf. in-dico. 

prae-ses, guardian; cf. prae-sideo. 

com-bib5, boon companion; cf. com-bibo, -ere. 

d» An Adjective is sometimes modified by an adverbial prefix. 

1. Of these, per- (less commonly prae-), very; sub-, somewhat; in-, not, are 
regular, and are very freely prefixed to adjectives : — 

per-magnus, very large. in-nocuus, harmless. 

per-pauci, very few. in-imicus, unfriendly. 

sub-rusticus, rather clownish. In-sanus, insane. 

sub-fuscus, darkish. In-fmitus, boundless. 

prae-longus, very long. im-purus, impure. 

Note. — Per and sub, in these senses, are also prefixed to verbs : as, per-terreo, terrify ; 
sub-rideo, smile. In ignosco, pardon f in- appears to be the negative prefix. 

2. The negative in- sometimes appears in combination with an adjective 
that does not occur alone : — ■ 

in-ermis, unarmed (cf. arma, arms). 

im-bellis, unwarlike (cf. bellum, war). 

im-punis, without punishment (cf. poena, punishment). 

in-teger, untouched, whole (cf. tango, to touch, root tag). 

in-vitus, unwilling (probably from root seen in vi-s, thou wishest). 



PART SECOND— SYNTAX 



INTRODUCTORY NOTE 

268. The study of formal grammar arose at a late period in the history of lan- 
guage, and dealt with language as a fully developed product. Accordingly the terms 
of Syntax correspond to the logical habits of thought and forms of expression that 
had grown up at such a period, and have a logical as well as a merely grammatical 
meaning. But a developed syntactical structure is not essential to the expression of 
thought. A form of words — like 5 puerum pulchrum! oh! beautiful boy — expresses 
a thought and might even be called a sentence ; though it does not logically declare any- 
thing, and does not, strictly speaking, make what is usually called a sentence at all. 

At a very early period of spoken language, word-forms were no doubt significant 
in themselves, without inflections, and constituted the whole of language, — just as to 
a child the name of some familiar object will stand for all he can say about it. At a 
somewhat later stage, such uninflected words put side by side made a rudimentary 
form of proposition : as a child might say fire bright ; horse run. With this began the 
first form of logical distinction, that of Subject and Predicate ; but as yet there was no 
distinction in form between noun and verb, and no fixed distinction in function. At a 
later stage forms were differentiated in function and — by various processes of com- 
position which cannot be fully traced — Inflections were developed. These served to 
express person, tense, case, and other grammatical relations, and we have true Parts 
of Speech. 

Not until language reached this last stage was there any fixed limit to the asso- 
ciation of words, or any rule prescribing the manner in which they should be combined. 
But gradually, by usage, particular forms came to be limited to special functions (as 
nouns, verbs, adjectives), and fixed customs arose of combining words into what we 
now call Sentences. These customs are in part the result of general laws or modes of 
thought (logic), resulting from our habits of mind (General Grammar); and in part 
are what may be called By-Laws, established by custom in a given language (Particu- 
lar Grammar), and making what is called the Syntax of that language. 

In the fully developed methods of expression to which we are almost exclusively 
accustomed, the unit of expression is the Sentence : that is, the completed statement, 
with its distinct Subject and Predicate. Originally sentences were simple. But two 
simple sentence-forms may be used together, without the grammatical subordination 
of either, to express a more complex form of thought than could be denoted by one 
alone. This is parataxis (arrangement side by side). Since, however, the two sen- 
tences, independent in form, were in fact used to express parts of a complex whole 
and were therefore mutually dependent, the sense of unity found expression in con- 
junctions, which denoted the grammatical subordination of the one to the other. This 
is hypotaxis (arrangement under, subordination) . In this way, through various stages 
of development, which correspond to our habitual modes of thought, there were pro- 
duced various forms of complex sentences. Thus, to express the complex idea / beseech 
you to pardon me, the two simple sentence-forms quaeso and ignSscas were used side by 
side, quaeso ignoscas ; then the feeling of grammatical subordination found expression 
in a conjunction, quaeso ut ignoscas, forming a complex sentence. The results of these 
processes constitute the subject-matter of Syntax. 

163 



164 SYNTAX: THE SENTENCE [§§269-272 

THE SENTENCE 
Kinds of Sentences 

269. A Sentence is a form of words which contains a State- 
ment, a Question, an Exclamation, or a Command. 

a. A sentence in the form of a Statement is called a Declarative 
Sentence : as, — canis currit, the dog runs. 

b. A sentence in the form of a Question is called an Interroga- 
tive Sentence: as, — canisne currit? does the dog rim? 

c. A sentence in the form of an Exclamation is called an Exclama- 
tory Sentence : as, — quam celeriter currit canis ! hoivfast the dog runs ! 

d. A sentence in the form of a Command, an Exhortation, or an 
Entreaty is called an Imperative Sentence : as, — i, curre per Alpis, go, 
run across the Alps ; currat canis, let the dog run. 

Subject and Predicate 

270. Every sentence consists of a Subject and a Predicate. 
The Subject of a sentence is the person or thing spoken of. 

The Predicate is that which is said of the Subject. 

Thus in canis currit, the dog runs, canis is the subject, and currit the predicate. 

271. The Subject of a sentence is usually a Noun or Pronoun, 

or some word or group of words used as a Noun : — 

equites ad Caesarem venerunt, the cavalry came to Ccesar. 

humanum est errare, to err is human. 

quaeritur num mors malum sit, the question is whether death is an evil. 

a. But in Latin the subject is often implied in the termination of 
the verb : — 

sede-mus, we sit. curri-tis, you run. inqui-t, says he. 

272. The Predicate of a sentence may be a Verb (as in canis 
currit, the dog runs), or it may consist of some form of sum and 
a Noun or Adjective which describes or defines the subject (as in 
Caesar consul erat, Ccesar was consul). 

Such a noun or adjective is called a Predicate Noun or Adjective, 
and the verb sum is called the Copula (i.e. the connective). 

Thus in the example given, Caesar is the subject, consul the predicate noun, and 
erat the copula (see § 283). 



§§ 273, 274] VERB AND OBJECT 165 

Transitive and Intransitive Verbs 

273. Verbs are either Transitive or Intransitive. 

1. A Transitive Verb has or requires a direct object to complete 
its sense (see § 274) : as, — fratrem cecidit, he slew his brother. 

2. An Intransitive Verb admits of no direct object to complete 
its sense: — 

cado, I fall (or am falling). sol lucet, the sun shines (or is shining). 

Note 1. — Among transitive verbs Factitive Verbs are sometimes distinguished 
as a separate class. These state an act which produces the thing expressed by the 
word which completes their sense. Thus mensam fecit, he made a table (which was 
not in existence before), is distinguished from mensam percussit, he struck a table 
(which already existed). 

Note 2. — A transitive verb may often be used absolutely , i.e. without any object 
expressed : as, — arat, he is ploughing, where the verb does not cease to be transitive 
because the object is left indefinite, as we see by adding, — quid, what? agrum suum, 
his land. 

Note 3. — Transitive and Intransitive Verbs are often called Active and Neuter 
Verbs respectively. 

Object 

274. The person or thing immediately affected by the action of 
a verb is called the Direct Object. 

A person or thing indirectly affected by the action of a verb 
is called the Indirect Object. 

Only transitive verbs can have a Direct Object ; but an Indirect 
Object may be used with both transitive and intransitive verbs 
(§§ 362, 366): — 

pater vocat f ilium (direct object), the father calls his son. 

mini (ind. obj.) agrum (dir. obj.) ostendit, he showed me afield. 

mini (ind. obj.) placet, it is pleasing to me. 

Note. — The distinction between transitive and intransitive verbs is not a fixed dis- 
tinction, for most transitive verbs may be used intransitively, and many verbs usually 
intransitive may take a direct object and so become transitive (§ 388. a). 

a. With certain verbs, the Genitive, Dative, or Ablative is used 
where the English, from a difference in meaning, requires the direct 
object (Objective) : — 

hominem video, I see the man (Accusative). 

hominl servio, I serve the man (Dative, see § 367). 

hominis misereor, I pity the man (Genitive, see § 354. a). 

homine amico utor, I treat the man as a friend (Ablative, see § 410). 



166 SYNTAX: THE SENTENCE [§§274-277 

b. Many verbs transitive in Latin are rendered into English by 
an intransitive verb with, a preposition: — 
petit aprum, he aims at the boar. 
laudem affectat, he strives after praise. 
curat valetudinem, he takes care of his health. 
meum casum doluerunt, they grieved at my misfortune. 
ridet nostram amentiam (Quinct. 55), he laughs at our stupidity. 

275. When a transitive verb is changed from the Active to the 
Passive voice, the Direct Object becomes the Subject and is put 
in the Nominative case : — 

Active : pater filium vocat, the father calls his son. 
Passive : films a patre vocatur, the son is called by his father. 
Active : lunam et stellas videmus, we see the moon and the stars. 
Passive : luna et stellae videntur, the moon and stars are seen (appear). 

Modification 

276. A Subject or a Predicate may be modified by a single word, 
or by a group of words (a phrase or a clause). 

The modifying word or group of words may itself be modified in 
the same way. 

a. A single modifying word may be an adjective, an adverb, an 
appositive (§ 282), or the oblique case of a noun. 

Thus in the sentence vir fortis patienter fert, a brave man endures patiently, 
the adjective fortis, brave, modifies the subject vir, man, and the adverb patienter, 
patiently, modifies the predicate fert, endures. 

b. The modifying word is in some cases said to limit the word 
to which it belongs. 

Thus in the sentence pueri patrem vide5, I see the boy's father, the genitive 
pueri limits patrem (by excluding any other father). 

277. A Phrase is a group of words, without subject or predicate 
of its own, which may be used as an Adjective or an Adverb. 

Thus in the sentence vir fuit summa nobilitate, he was a man of the highest 
nobility, the words summa nobilitate, of the highest nobility, are used for the 
adjective nobilis, noble (or nobilissimus, very noble), and are called an Adjective 
Phrase. 

So in the sentence magna celeritate venit, he came with great speed, the words 
magna celeritate, with great speed, are used for the adverb celeriter, quickly (or 
celerrime, very quickly), and are called an Adverbial Phrase. 



§§ 278, 279] CLAUSES AND SENTENCES 167 

Clauses and Sentences 

278. Sentences are either Simple or Compound. 

1. A sentence containing a single statement is called a Simple 
Sentence. 

2. A sentence containing more than one statement is called 
a Compound Sentence, and each single statement in it is called 
a Clause. 

a. If one statement is simply added to another, the clauses are 
said to be Coordinate. They are usually connected by a Coordinate 
Conjunction (§ 223. a) ; but this is sometimes omitted : — 

divide et impera, divide and control. But, — 
veni, vidi, vici, I came, I saw, I conquered. 

b. If one statement modifies another in any way, the modifying 
clause is said to be Subordinate, and the clause modified is called 
the Main Clause. 

This subordination is indicated by some connecting word, either 
a Subordinate Conjunction (§ 223. b) or a Eelative: — 
oderint dum metuant, let them hate so long as they fear. 
servum mlsit quem secum habebat, he sent the slave whom he had with him. 

A sentence containing one or more subordinate clauses is some- 
times called Complex. 

Note. — A subordinate clause may itself be modified by other subordinate clauses. 

279. Subordinate Clauses are of various kinds. 

a. A clause introduced by a Eelative Pronoun or Eelative Adverb 
is called a Eelative Clause : — 

Mosa profiuit ex monte Vosego, qui est in finibus Lingonum (B. G. iv. 1.0), 
the Meuse rises in the Vosges mountains, which are on the borders of the 
Lingones. 
For Relative Pronouns (or Relative Adverbs) serving to connect independent sen- 
tences, see §308./. 

b. A clause introduced by an Adverb of Time is called a Tem- 
poral Clause : — 

cum tacent, clamant (Cat. i. 21), while they are silent, they cry aloud. 

homines aegrl morbo gravi, cum iactantur aestii febrique, si aquam gelidam 
biberint, prlmo relevarl videntur (id. i. 31), men suffering with a severe 
sickness, when they are tossing with the heat of fever, if they drink cold 
water, seem at first to be relieved. 



168 SYNTAX: AGREEMENT [§§279-281 

c. A clause containing a Condition, introduced by si, if (or some 
equivalent expression), is called a Conditional Clause. A sentence 
containing a conditional clause is called a Conditional Sentence. 

Thus, si aquam gelidam biberint, prim5 relevari videntur (in 6, above) is a Con- 
ditional Sentence, and si . . . biberint is a Conditional Clause. 

d. A clause expressing the Purpose of an action is called a Final 
Clause : — 

edo ut vivam, I eat to live (that I may live). 

misit legatos qui dicerent, he sent ambassadors to say (who should say). 

e. A clause expressing the Result of an action is called a Con- 
secutive Clause : — * 

tarn longe" aberam ut n5n viderem, I was too far away to see (so far away that 
I did not see). 

AGREEMENT 

280. A word is said to agree with another when it is required 
by usage to be in the same Gender, Number, Case, or Person. 

The following are the general forms of agreement, sometimes 
called the Four Concords : — 

1. The agreement of the Noun in Apposition or as Predicate 
(§§ 281-284). 

2. The agreement of the Adjective with its Noun (§ 286). 

3. The agreement of the Eelative with its Antecedent (§ 305). 

4. The agreement of the Finite Verb with its Subject (§ 316). 
a. A word sometimes takes the gender or number, not of the word 

with which it should regularly agree, but of some other word implied 
in that word. 

This use is called Synesis, or constructio ad sensum (construction 
according to sense). 

AGREEMENT OF NOUNS 

281. A noun used to describe another, and denoting the same 
person or thing, agrees with it in Case. 

The descriptive noun may be either an Appositive (§ 282) or a 
Predicate noun (§ 283). 

1 Observe that the classes defined in a-e are not mutually exclusive, but that a 
single clause may belong to several of them at once. Thus a relative clause is 
usually subordinate, and may be at the same time temporal or conditional; and 
subordinate clauses may be coordinate with each other. 



§ 282] APPOSITION 169 

Apposition 

282. A noun used to describe another, and standing in the same 
part of the sentence with the noun described, is called an Apposi- 
tive, and is said to be in apposition : — 

externus timor, maximum concordiae vinculum, iungebat animos (Liv. ii. 39), 
fear of the foreigner, the chief bond of harmony, united their hearts. 
[Here the appositive belongs to the subject] 

quattuor hie prmmin omen equos vldl (Aen. iii. 537), I saw here four horses, 
the first omen. [Here both nouns are in the predicate.] 

litteras Graecas senex didicl (Cat. M. 26), I learned Greek when an old man. 
[Here senex, though in apposition with the subject of didici, really states 
something further : viz. , the time, condition, etc. , of the act (Predicate 
Apposition).] 

a. Words expressing parts may be in apposition with a word 
including the parts, or vice versa (Partitive Apposition) : — 

Nee P. Popilius neque Q. Metellus, clarissimi viri atque amplissimi, vim 
tribunlciam sustinere potuerunt (Clu. 95), neither Publius Popilius nor 
Quintus Metellus, [both of them] distinguished and honorable men, could 
withstand the power of the tribunes. 

Gnaeus et Publius Scipiones, Cneius and Publius Scipio (the Scipios). 

b. An Adjective may be used as an appositive: — 

ea Sex. Roscium inopem recepit (Rose. Am. 27), she received Sextus Roscius 
in his poverty (needy). 

c. An appositive generally agrees with its noun in Gender and 
Number when it can : — 

sequuntur naturam, optimam ducem (Lael. 19), they follow nature, the best 

guide. 
omnium doctrlnarum inventrices Athenas (De Or. i. 13), Athens, discoverer 

of all learning. 

Note. — But such agreement is often impossible : as, — olim truncus eram fieulnus, 
inutile lignum (Hor. S. i. 8. 1), I once was a fig-tree trunk, a useless log. 

d. A common noun in apposition with a Locative (§ 427) is put in 
the Ablative, with or without the preposition in : — 

Antiochiae, celebrl quondam urbe (Arch. 4), at Antioch, once a famous city. 
Albae constiterunt, in urbe munita (Phil. iv. 6), they halted at Alba, a forti- 
fied town. 

For a Genitive in apposition with a Possessive Pronoun or an Adjective, see § 302. e. 
For the so-called Appositional Genitive, see § 343. d. 
For the construction with nomen est, see § 373. a. 



170 SYNTAX: AGREEMENT [§§283-285 

Predicate Noun or Adjective 

283. With sum and a few other intransitive or passive verbs, a 
noun or an adjective describing or defining the subject may stand in 
the predicate. This is called a Predicate Noun or Adjective. 

The verb sum is especially common in this construction, and when 
so used is called the copula (i.e. connective). 

Other verbs which take a predicate noun or adjective are the so- 
called copulative verbs signifying to become, to be made, to be named, 
to appear, and the like. 

284. A Predicate Noun or Adjective after the copula sum or & 

copulative verb is in the same case as the Subject : — 

pacis semper auctor ful (Lig. 28), I have always been an adviser of peace. 
quae pertinacia quibusdam, eadem aliis constantia viderl potest (Marc. 31), 

what may seem obstinacy to some, may seem to others consistency. 
eius mortis sedetis ult5res (Mil. 79), you sit as avengers of his death. 
habeatur vir egregius Paulus (Cat. iv. 21), let Paulus be regarded as an 

extraordinary man. 
ego patronus exstiti (Rose. Am. 5), I have come forward as an advocate. 
dlcit non omnis bonos esse beatos, he says that not all good men are happy. 

a. A predicate noun referring to two or more singular nouns is 
in the plural : — 

consules creantur Caesar et Servllius (B. C. iii. 1), Caisar and Servilius are 
elected consuls. 

b. Sum in the sense of exist makes a complete predicate without a 
predicate noun or adjective. It is then called the substantive verb : — 

sunt viri fortes, there are (exist) brave men. [Cf . vixere fortes ante Agamem- 
nona (Hor. Od. iv. 9. 25), brave men lived before Agamemnon.] 
For Predicate Accusative and Predicate Ablative, see §§ 392, 415. n. 

AGREEMENT OF ADJECTIVES 
Attributive and Predicate Adjectives 

285. Adjectives are either Attributive or Predicate. 

1. An Attributive Adjective simply qualifies its noun without 
the intervention of a verb or participle, expressed or implied: as, 
— bonus imperator, a good commander; stellae lucidae, bright stars; 
verbum Graecum, a Grreek word. 



§§ 285, 286] AGEEEMENT OF ADJECTIVES 171 

2. All other adjectives are called Predicate Adjectives : 

stellae lucidae erant, the stars were bright. 

sit Scipio clarus (Cat. iv. 21), let Scipio be illustrious. 

homines mitis reddidit (Inv. i. 2), has rendered men mild. 

tria praedia Capitoni propria traduntur (Eosc. Am. 21), three farms are 

handed over to Capito as his own. 
consilium ceperunt plenum sceleris (id. 28), they formed a plan full of 
villany. 
Note. — A predicate adjective maybe used with sum or a copulative verb (§ 283) ; it 
may have the construction of a predicate accusative after a verb of naming, calling, or 
the like (§ 393. n.) ; or it may be used in apposition like a noun (§ 282. b). 

Rules of Agreement 

286. Adjectives, Adjective Pronouns, and Participles agree 
with their nouns in Gender, Number, and Case : — 
vir fortis, a brave man. 
ilia mulier, that woman. 
urbium magnarum, of great cities. 
cum ducentis militibus, with two hundred soldiers. 
imperator victus est, the general was beaten. 
secutae sunt tempestates, storms followed. 

Note. — All rules for the agreement of adjectives apply also to adjective pronouns 
and to participles. 

a. With two or more nouns the adjective is regularly plural, but 
often agrees with the nearest (especially when attributive) : — 

Nlsus et Euryalus primi (Aen. v. 294), JSfisus and Euryalus first. 
Caesaris omni et gratia et opibus fraor (Fam. i. 9. 21), I enjoy all Coesar'sfo.vor 
and resources. 

Note. — An adjective referring to two nouns connected by the preposition cum is 
occasionally plural (synesis, § 280. a): as, — Iuba cum Labieno capti (B. Afr. 52), Juba 
and Labienus were taken. 

b. A collective noun may take an adjective of a different gender 
and number agreeing with the gender and number of the individuals 
implied (synesis, § 280. a) : — 

pars certare parati (Aen. v. 108), apart ready to contend. 

coloniae aliquot deductae, PriscI LatinI appellati (Liv. i. 3), several colonies 

were planted (led out) [of men] called Old Latins. 
multitudo convict! sunt (Tac. Ann. xv. 44), a multitude were convicted. 
magna pars raptae (id. i. 9), a large part [of the women] were seized. 

Note. — A superlative in the predicate rarely takes the gender of a partitive geni- 
tive by which it is limited: as, — velocissimum animalium delphmus est (Plin. N. H. 
ix. 20), the dolphin is the swiftest [creature] of creatures. 



172 SYNTAX: ADJECTIVES [§§287,288 

287. One adjective may belong in sense to two or more nouns 
of different genders. In such cases, — 

1. An Attributive Adjective agrees with the nearest noun: — 

multae operae ac laboris, of much trouble and toil. 
vita moresque mei, my life and character. 

si res, si vir, si tempus ullum dignum fuit (Mil. 19), if any thing, if any 
man, if any time was fit. 

2. A Predicate Adjective may agree with the nearest noun, if the 
nouns form one connected idea : — 

f actus est strepitus et admurnmratio (Verr. i. 45), a noise of assent was made 
(noise and murmur). 
Note. —This is only when the copula agrees with the nearest subject (§ 317. c). 

3. But generally, a Predicate Adjective will be masculine, if nouns 
of different genders mean living beings ; neuter, if things without 
life : — 

uxor deinde ac Hberl amplexi (Liv. ii. 40), then his wife and children embraced 
him. 

labor (m.) voluptasque (f.) societate quadam inter se natural! sunt iuncta (n.) 
(id. v. 4), labor and delight are bound together by a certain natural alli- 
ance. 

4. If nouns of different genders include both living beings and 
things without life, a Predicate Adjective is sometimes masculine (or 
feminine), sometimes neuter, and sometimes agrees in gender with 
the nearest if that is plural : — 

rex regiaque classis una profecti (Liv. xxi. 50), the king and the royal fleet set 

out together. 
natura inimica sunt libera civitas et rex (id. xliv. 24), by nature a free state 

and a king are hostile. 
legatos sortesque oracull exspectandas (id. v. 15), that the ambassadors and 

the replies of the oracle should be waited for. 

a. Two or more abstract nouns of the same gender may have a 
Predicate Adjective in the neuter plural (cf. § 289. c): — 

stultitia et temeritas et iniustitia . . . sunt fugienda (Fin. iii. 39), folly, rash- 
ness, and injustice are [things] to be shunned. 

Adjectives used Substantively 

288. Adjectives are often used as Nouns (substantively), the 
masculine usually to denote men or people in general of that kind, 
the feminine women, and the neuter things : — 



J§ 288, 289] ADJECTIVES USED SUBSTANTIVELY 173 

omnes, all men (everybody). omnia, all things (everything), 

maiores, ancestors. minores, descendants. 

Roman!, Romans. barbari, barbarians. 

Hberta, a freedwoman. Sablnae, the Sabine wives. 

sapiens, a sage (philosopher). amicus, a friend. 

boni, the good (good people). bona, goods, property. 

Note. — The plural of adjectives, pronouns, and participles is very common in this 
use. The singular is comparatively rare except in the neuter (§ 289. a, c) and in words 
that have become practically nouns. 

a. Certain adjectives have become practically nouns, and are often 
modified by other adjectives or by the possessive genitive : — 

tuus vicinus proximus, your next-door neighbor. 
propinqui ceteri, his other relatives. 
mens aequalis, a w.om of my own age. 

eius familiaris Catilma (Har. Resp. 5), his intimate friend Catiline. 
Leptae nostrl familiarissimus (Fam. ix. 13. 2), a very close friend of our friend 
Lepta. 

b. When ambiguity would arise from the substantive use of an 
adjective, a noun must be added : — 

boni, the good ; omnia, everything (all things) ; but, — 
potentia omnium rerum, power over everything. 

c* Many adjectives are used substantively either in the singular 
or the plural, with the added meaning of some noun which is under- 
stood from constant association : — 

Africus [ventus], the southwest wind; Ianuarius [mensis], January; vitu* 
Una [caro], veal (calf's flesh) ; fera [bestia], a wild beast; patria [terra], 
the fatherland ; Gallia [terra], Gavl (the land of the Galll) ; hiberna 
[castra], winter quarters ; triremis [navis], a three-banked galley , trireme; 
argentarius [faber], a silversmith; regia [domus], the palace; Latinae 
[feriae], the Latin festival. 

Note.— -These adjectives are specific in meaning, not generic like those in § 288. 
They include the names of winds and months (§ 31). 
For Nouns used as Adjectives, see § 321. c. 
For Adverbs used like Adjectives, see § 321. d. 

289. Neuter Adjectives are used substantively in the following 
special senses : — 

a. The neuter singular may denote either a single object or an 
abstract quality : — 

rapt5 vlvere, to live by plunder. in arido, on dry ground. 

honestum, an honorable act, or virtue (as a quality). 

opus est maturatS, there is need of haste. [Cf. impersonal passives, § 208. d.] 



174 SYNTAX: ADJECTIVES [§§289-291 

b. The neuter plural is used to signify objects in general having 
the quality denoted, and hence may stand for the abstract idea : — 

honesta, honorable deeds (in general). praeterita, the past (lit., bygones), 
omnes fortia laudant, all men praise bravery (brave things). 

c. A neuter adj ective may be used as an appositive or predicate 
noun with a noun of different gender (cf . § 287. a) : — 

triste lupus stabulis (Eel. iii. 80), the wolf [is] a grievous thing for the fold. 
varium et mutabile semper femina (Aen. iv. 569), woman is ever a changing 

and fickle thing. 
malum mini videtur esse mors (Tusc. i. 9), death seems to me to be an evil. 

d. A neuter adjective may be used as an attributive or a predicate 
adjective with an infinitive or a substantive clause : — 

istuc ipsum non esse (Tusc. i. 12), that very u not to be." 

humanum est err are, to err is human. 

aliud est errare Caesarem nolle, aliud nolle misererl (Lig. 16), it is one thing 

to be unwilling that Ccesar should err, another to be unwilling that he 

should pity. 

Adjectives with Adverbial Force 

290. An adjective, agreeing with the subject or object, is often 

used to qualify the action of the verb, and so has the force of an 

adverb : — 

primus venit, he ivas the first to come (came first). 

nullus dubito, I no way doubt. 

laeti audiere, they were glad to hear. 

erat Eomae frequens (Rose. Am. 16), he was often at Rome. 

serus in caelum redeas (Hor. Od. i. 2. 45), mayst thou return late to heaven. 

Comparatives and Superlatives 

291. Besides their regular signification (as in English), the 
forms of comparison are used as follows : — 

a. The Comparative denotes a considerable or excessive degree of 
a quality: as, — brevior, rather short ; audacior, too bold. 

b. The Superlative (of eminence) often denotes a very high degree 
of a quality without implying a distinct comparison: as, — mons 
altissimus, a very high mountain. 

Note. — The Superlative of Eminence is much used in complimentary references 
to persons and may often be translated by the simple positive. 



§§291-293] COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES 175 

c. With quam, vel, or unus the Superlative denotes the highest pos- 
sible degree : — 

quam plurimi, as many as possible. 

quam maxime potest (maxime quam potest), as much as can be. 

vel minimus, the very least. 

vir unus doctissimus, the one most learned man. 

Note 1. — A high degree of a quality is also denoted, by such adverbs as admodum, 
valde, very, or by per or prae in composition (§ 267. d. 1) : as, — valde malus, very bad — 
pessimus; permagnus, very great; praealtus, very high (or deep). 

Note 2. — A low degree of a quality is indicated by sub in composition : as, — sub- 
rusticus, rather clownish , or by minus, not very ; minime, not at all ; parum, not enough ; 
non satis, not much. 

Note 3. — The comparative maiores (for maiores natu, greater by birth) has the spe- 
cial signification of ancestors; so minores often means descendants. 

For the Superlative with quisque, see § 313. b. For the construction of a substantive 
after a Comparative, see §§ 406, 407 ; for that of a clause, see § 535. c, 571. a. For the 
Ablative of Degree of Difference with a Comparative (multo etc.), see § 414. 

292. When two qualities of an object are compared, both adjec- 
tives are in the Comparative : — 

longior quam latior acies erat (Liv. xxvii. 48), the line ivas longer than it vjas 

broad (or, rather long than broad). 
verior quam gratior (id. xxii. 38), more true than agreeable. 

Note. — So also with adverbs: as, — libentius quam verius (Mil. 78), with more 
freedom than truth. 

a. Where magis is used, both adjectives are in the positive : — 
disertus magis quam sapiens (Att. x. 1. 4), eloquent rather than wise. 
clari magis quam honesti (lug. 8), more renowned than honorable. 

Note. — A comparative and a positive, or even two positives, are sometimes con- 
nected by quam. This use is rarer and less elegant than those before noticed : — 

clans maioribus quam vetustis (Tac. Ann. iv. 61), of a family more famous than 

old. 
vekementius quam caute (Tac. Agr. 4), with more fury than good heed. 

293. Superlatives (and more rarely Comparatives) denoting 
order and succession — also medius, [ceterus], reliquus — usually 
designate not what object, but ivhat part of it, is meant: — 

summus mons, the top of the hill. 

in ultima platea, at the end of the place. 

prior actio, the earlier part of an action. 

reliqui captlvi, the rest of the prisoners. 

in colle medio (B. G. i. 24), half way up the hill (on the middle of the hill). 

inter ceteram planitiem (lug. 92), in a region elsewhere level. 

Note. — A similar use is found in sera (multa) nocte, late at night, and the like. But 
medium viae, the middle of the way ; multum diei, much of the day, also occur. 



176 SYNTAX: PRONOUNS [§§ 294, 295 



PRONOUNS 

294. A Pronoun indicates some person or thing without either naming or describ- 
ing it. Pronouns are derived from a distinct class of roots, which seem to have denoted 
only ideas of place and direction (§ 228. 2), and from which nouns or verbs can very 
rarely be formed. They may therefore stand for Nouns when the person or thing, 
being already present to the senses or imagination, needs only to be pointed out, not 
named. 

Some pronouns indicate the object in itself, without reference to its class, and have 
no distinction of gender. These are Personal Pronouns. They stand syntactically 
for Nouns, and have the same construction as nouns. 

Other pronouns designate a particular object of a class, and take the gender of the 
individuals of that class. These are called Adjective Pronouns. They stand for 
Adjectives, and have the same construction as adjectives. 

Others are used in both ways ; and, though called adjective pronouns, may also be 
treated as personal, taking, however, the gender of the object indicated. 

In accordance with their meanings and uses, Pronouns are classified as follows: — 
Personal Pronouns (§ 295). Interrogative Pronouns (§ 333). 

Demonstrative Pronouns (§296). Relative Pronouns (§303). 

Reflexive Pronouns (§ 299) . Indefinite Pronouns (§ 309) . 

Possessive Pronouns (§ 302) . 

Personal Pronouns 

295. The Personal Pronouns have, in general, the same con- 
structions as nouns. 

a. The personal pronouns are not expressed as subjects, except for 
distinction or emphasis : — 

te voco, I call you. But, — 

quis me vocat ? ego te voco, who is calling me ? I (emphatic) am calling you. 

b. The personal pronouns have two forms for the genitive plural, 
that in -um being used partitively (§ 346), and that in -I oftenest 
objectively (§ 348) : — 

m&ior vestrum, the elder of you. 

habetis ducem memorem vestri, oblitum sul (Cat. iv. 19), you have a leader 

who thinks (is mindful) of you and forgets (is forgetful of) himself 
pars nostrum, apart (i.e. some) of us. 

Note 1. — The genitives nostrum, vestrum, are occasionally used objectively (§ 348): 
as, — cupidus vestrum (Verr. iii.224:), fond of you; ciistos vestrum (Cat. iii. 29), the guar- 
dian of you (your guardian). 

Note 2. — " One of themselves " is expressed by unus ex suls or ipsis (rarely ex se), 
or unus suorum. 

c. The Latin has no personal pronouns of the third person except 
the reflexive se. The want is supplied by a Demonstrative or Bela- 
tive (§§ 296. 2, 308./). 



§§ 296, 297] DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS 177 

Demonstrative Pronouns 

296. Demonstrative Pronouns are used either adjectively or 
substantively. 

1. As adjectives, they follow the rules for the agreement of adjec- 
tives and are called Adjective Pronouns or Pronominal Adjectives 
(§§ 286,287): — 

h5c proelio facto, after this battle was fought (this battle having been fought). 

eodem proelio, in the same battle. 

ex els aedificils, out of those buildings. 

2. As substantives, they are equivalent to personal pronouns. This 
use is regular in the oblique cases, especially of is : — 

Caesar et exercitus eius, Ccesar and his army (not suus). [But, Caesar 

exercitum suum dlmlsit, Cazsar disbanded his [own] army.] 
si obsides ab eis dentur (B. G. i. 14), if hostages should be given by them 

(persons just spoken of). 
hi sunt extra provinciain trans Ehodanum prlmi (id. i. 10), they (those just 

mentioned) are the first [inhabitants] ac7*oss the Rhone. 
ille minimum propter adulescentiam poterat (id. i. 20), he (emphatic) had 

very little power, on account of his youth. 

a. An adjective pronoun usually agrees with an appositive or 
predicate noun, if there be one, rather than with the word to which 
it refers (cf . § 306) : — 

hie locus est iinus quo perfugiant ; hie portus, haec arx, haec ara sociorum 
(Verr. v. 126), this is the only place to which they can flee for refuge; this 
is the haven, this the citadel, this the altar of the allies. 

rerum caput hoc erat, hie fons (Hor. Ep. i. 17. 45), this was the head of things, 
this the source. 

earn sapientiam interpretantur quam adhuc mortalis nemo est consecutus 
[for id . . . quod] (Lael. 18), they explain that [thing] to be wisdom which 
no man ever yet attained. 

297. The main uses of hie, ille, iste, and is are the following: — 

a. Hie is used of what is near the speaker (in time, place, or 
thought). It is hence called the demonstrative of the first person. 

It is sometimes used of the speaker himself ; sometimes for " the 
latter" of two persons or things mentioned in speech or writing; 
more rarely for " the former," when that, though more remote on the 
written page, is nearer the speaker in time, place, or thought. Often 
it refers to that which has just been mentioned. 



178 SYNTAX: PRONOUNS [§§297,298 

b. Ille is used of what is remote (in time, etc.) ; and is hence called 
the demonstrative of the third person. 

It is sometimes used to mean " the former " ; also (usually follow- 
ing its noun) of what is famous or well-known ; often (especially the 
neuter illud) to mean " the following." 

c. Iste is used of what is between the two others in remoteness : 
often in allusion to the person addressed, — hence called the demon- 
strative of the second person. 

It especially refers to one's opponent (in court, etc.), and fre- 
quently implies antagonism or contempt. 

d. Is is a weaker demonstrative than the others and is especially 
common as a personal pronoun. It does not denote any special object, 
but refers to one just mentioned, or to be afterwards explained by a 
relative. Often it is merely a correlative to the relative qui : — 

venit mihi obviam tuus puer, is mihi litteras abs te reddidit (Att. ii. 1. 1), 

your boy met me, he delivered to me a letter from you. 
eum quern, one whom. 
eum consulem qui non dubitet (Cat. iv. 24), a consul who will not hesitate. 

e. The pronouns hie, ille, and is are used to point in either direction, 
back to something just mentioned or forward to something about to 
be mentioned. 

The neuter forms often refer to a clause, phrase, or idea : — 
est illud quidem vel maximum, animum videre (Tusc. i. 52), that is in truth 
a very great thing, — to see the soul. 

f. The demonstratives are sometimes used as pronouns of refer- 
ence, to indicate with emphasis a noun or phrase just mentioned : — 

millam virtus aliam mercedem desiderat praeter hanc laudis (Arch. 28), 
virtue wants no other reward except that [just mentioned] of praise. 
Note. — But the ordinary English use of that of is hardly known in Latin. Com- 
monly the genitive construction is continued without a pronoun, or some other con- 
struction is preferred : — 

cum ei Simonides artem memoriae polliceretur : oblivionis, inquit, mallem (Fin. ii. 
104), when Simo?iides promised him the art of memory , "/ should prefer" 
said he y " [that] of forgetfulness." 
Caesaris exercitus Pompeianos ad Pharsalum vicit, the army of Caesar defeated 
that of Pompey (the Pompeians) at Pharsalus. 

298. The main uses of idem and ipse are as follows : — 

a. When a quality or act is ascribed with emphasis to a person 

or thing already named, is or idem (often with the concessive quidem) 

is used to indicate that person or thing : — 



§298] DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS 179 

per unum servum et eum ex gladiatorio ludo (Att. i. 16. 5), by means of a 
single slave, and that too one from the gladiatorial school. 

vincula, et ea sempiterna (Cat. iv. 7), imprisonment, and that perpetual. 

Ti. Gracchus regnuni occupare conatus est, vel regnavit is quidem paucos 
mensis (Lael. 41), Tiberius Gracchus tried to usurp royal power, or 
rather he actually reigned a few months. 

Note. — So rarely with ille : as, — nunc dextra ingeminans ictus, nunc ille sinistra 
(Aen. v. 457), now dealing redoubled blows with his right hand, now (he) with his left. 
[In imitation of the Homeric 6' ye: cf. Aen. v. 334; ix. 796.] 

b. Idem, the same, is often used where the English requires an 
adverb or adverbial phrase (also, too, yet, at the same time)-. — 

oratio splendida et grandis et eadem in prlmls faceta (Brut. 273), an oration, 

brilliant, able, and very witty too. 
cum [haec] dlcat, negat idem esse in Deo gratiam (N. D. i. 121), when he 

says this, he denies also that there is mercy with God (he, the same man). 

Note. — This is really the same use as in a above, hut in this case the pronoun 
cannot be represented by a pronoun in English. 

c. The intensive ipse, self, is used with any of the other pronouns, 
with a noun, or with a temporal adverb for the sake of emphasis : — 

turpe mihi ipsi videbatur (Phil. i. 9), even to me (to me myself) it seemed 

disgraceful. 
id ipsum, that very thing ; quod ipsum, which of itself alone. 
in eum ipsum locum, to that very place. 
turn ipsum (Off. ii. 60), at that very time. 

Note 1. — The emphasis of ipse is often expressed in English hjjust, very, mere, etc. 

Note 2. — In English, the pronouns himself etc. are used both intensively (as, he 
will come himself) and reUexively (as, he will kill himself) : in Latin the former would 
be translated by ipse, the latter by se or sese. 

d. Ipse is often used alone, substantively, as follows : — 

1. As an emphatic pronoun of the third person : — 

idque rei publicae praeclarum, ipsis gloriosum (Phil. ii. 27), and this was 

splendid for the state, glorious for themselves. 
omnes bonl quantum in ipsis fuit (id. ii. 29), all good men so far as was in 

their power (in themselves). 
di capiti ipsius generique reservent (Aen. viii. 484), may the gods hold in 

reserve [such a fate] to fall on his own and his son-in-law' 1 s head. 

2. To emphasize an omitted subject of the first or second person : — 
voblscum ipsi recordamini (Phil. ii. 1), remember in your own minds (your- 
selves with yourselves). 

3. To distinguish the principal personage from subordinate persons : — 
ipse dixit (cf. avrbs i<t>a), he (the Master) said it. 

Nomentanus erat super ipsum (Hor. S. ii. 8. 23), Nomentanus was above [the 
host] himself [at table]. 



180 SYNTAX: PRONOUNS [§§298-300 

e. Ipse is often (is rarely) used instead of a reflexive (see § 300. b). 

f. Ipse usually agrees with the subject, even when the real empha- 
sis in English is on a reflexive in the predicate : — 

me ipse consolor (Lael. 10), I console myself. [Not me ipsum, as the Eng- 
lish would lead us to expect.] 

Reflexive Pronouns 

299. The Reflexive Pronoun (se), and usually its corresponding 

possessive (suus), are used in the predicate to refer to the subject 

of the sentence or clause : — 

se ex navi proiecit (B. G. iv. 25), he threw himself from the ship. 
Dumnorlgem ad se vocat (id. i. 20), he calls Dumnorix to him. 
sese castris tenebant (id. hi. 24), they kept themselves in camp. 
contemn! se putant (Cat. M. 65), they think they are despised. 
Caesar suas copias subducit (B. G. i. 22), Cazsar leads up his troops. 
Caesar statuit sibi Rhenum esse transeundum (id. iv. 16), Caisar decided that 
he must cross the Bhine (the Rhine must be crossed by himself). 

a* For reflexives of the first and second persons the oblique cases 
of the personal pronouns (mei, tui, etc.) and the corresponding pos- 
sessives (meus, tuns, etc.) are used : — 

mortl me obtuli (Mil. 94), I have exposed myself to death. 

hinc te reginae ad limina perfer (Aen. i. 389), do you go (bear yourself) 

hence to the queen's threshold. 
quid est quod tantls n5s in laborious exerceamus (Arch. 28), what reason is 

there why we should exert ourselves in so great toils f 
singulis vobis novenos ex turmls manipullsque vestri similes eligite (Liv. 

xxi. 54), for each of you pick out from the squadrons and maniples nine 

like yourselves. 

300. In a subordinate clause of a complex sentence there is a 
double use of Reflexives. 

1. The reflexive may always be used to refer to the subject of its 
own clause (Direct Reflexive) : — 

iiidicarl potest quantum habeat in se boni constantia (B. G. i. 40), it can be 
determined how much good firmness possesses (has in itself). 

[Caesar] noluit eum locum vacare, ne German! e suis finibus transirent 
(id. i. 28), Ccesar did not wish this place to lie vacant, for fear the Ger- 
mans would cross over from their territories. 

si qua significatio virtutis eluceat ad quam se similis animus adplicet et 
adiungat (Lael. 48), if any sign of virtue shine forth to which a similar 
disposition may attach itself. 



§300] REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS 181 

2. If the subordinate clause expresses the words or thought of the 
subject of the main clause, the reflexive is regularly used to refer to 
that subject (Indirect Reflexive) : — 

petierunt ut sibi liceret (B. G. i. 30), they begged, that it might be allowed 

them (the petitioners). 
Iccius rmntium mittit, nisi subsidium sibi submittatur (id. ii. 6), Iccius sends 

a message that unless relief be furnished him, etc. 
decima legio ei gratias egit, quod de se optimum indicium fecisset (id. i. 41), 

the tenth legion thanked him because [they said] he had expressed a high 

opinion of them. 
si obsides ab eis (the Helvetians) sibi (Csesar, who is the speaker) dentur, se 

(Caesar) cum eis pacem esse facturum (id. i. 14), [Csesar said that] if 

hostages were given him by them he would make peace with them. 

Note. — Sometimes the person or thing to which the reflexive refers is not the 
grammatical subject of the main clause, though it is in effect the subject of discourse : 
Thus, — cum ipsi deo nihil minus gratum futurum sit quam non omnibus patere ad se 
placandum viam (Legg. ii. 25), since to God himself nothing vrill be less pleasing than 
that the way to appease him should not be open to all men. 

a. If the subordinate clause does not express the words or thought 
of the main subject, the reflexive is not regularly used, though it is 
occasionally found : — 

sunt ita multi ut eos career capere non possit (Cat. ii. 22), they are so many 
that the prison cannot hold them. [Here se could not be used ; so also 
in the example following.] 

ibi in proximls villis ita bipartlto fuerunt, ut Tiberis inter eos et pons inter- 
esset (id. iii. 5), there they stationed themselves in the nearest farm- 
houses, in two divisions, in such a manner that the Tiber and the bridge 
were between them (the divisions). 

non fuit eo contentus quod ei praeter spem acciderat (Manil. 25), he was not 
content ivith that which had happened to him beyond his hope. 

Compare : qui fit, Maecenas, ut nemo, quam sibi sortem seu ratio dederit 
seu fors obiecerit, ilia contentus vivat (Hor. S. i. 1. 1), how comes it, 
Maecenas, that nobody lives contented with that lot which choice has 
assigned him or chance has thrown in his way ? [Here sibi is used to 
put the thought into the mind of the discontented man.] 

b. Ipse is often (is rarely) used instead of an indirect reflexive, 
either to avoid ambiguity or from carelessness ; and in later writers 
is sometimes found instead of the direct reflexive : — 

cur de sua virtute aut de ipsius diligentia desperarent (B. G. i. 40), why 
(he asked) should they despair of their own courage or his diligence ? 

omnia aut ips5s aut hostes populatos (Q. C. iii. 5. 6), [they said that] either 
they themselves or the enemy had laid all waste. [Direct reflexive.] 



182 SYNTAX: PRONOUNS [§§300,301 

qui se ex his minus timidos existimari volebant, non se hostem vererl, sed 
angustias itineris et magnitudinem silvarum quae intercederent inter 
ipsos (the persons referred to by se above) atque Ariovistum . . . timere 
dicebant (B. G. i. 39), those of them who wished to be thought less timid 
said they did not fear the enemy, bat were afraid of the narrows and the 
vast extent of the forests which were between themselves and Ariovistus. 

audlstis nuper dicere legatos Tyndaritanos Mercurium qui sacrls anniver- 
sariis apud eos coleretur esse sublatum (Verr. iv. 84), you have just heard 
the ambassadors from Tyndaris say that the statue of Mercury which was 
worshipped with annual rites among them was taken away. [Here Cicero 
wavers between apud eos colebatur, a remark of his own, and apud se 
coleretur, the words of the ambassadors, eos does not strictly refer to 
the ambassadors, but to the people — the Tyndaritani.] 

301. Special uses of the Reflexive are the following: — 

a. The reflexive in a subordinate clause sometimes refers to the 
subject of a suppressed main clause : — 

Paetus omnls libros quos f rater suus reliquisset mihi donavit (Att. ii. 1), 
Partus gave me all the books which (as he said in the act of donation) 
his brother had left him. 

b. The reflexive may refer to any noun or pronoun in its own clause 
which is so emphasized as to become the subject of discourse: — 

SScratem elves sui interf ecerunt, Socrates was put to death by his own fellow- 
citizens. 

qui poterat saliis sua cuiquam non probari (Mil. 81), how can any one fail 
to approve his own safety? [In this and the preceding example the 
emphasis is preserved in English by the change of voice.] 

hunc si sectiti erunt sui comites (Cat. ii. 10), this man, if his companions 
follow him. 

Note. — Occasionally the clause to which the reflexive really belongs is absorbed : 
as, — studeo sanare sibi ipsos (Cat. ii. 17), I am anxious to cure these men for their own 
benefit (i.e. ut sam sibi sint). 

c. Suus is used fox one's own as emphatically opposed to that of 
others, in any part of the sentence and with reference to any word 
in it : — 

suis flammis delete FIdenas (Liv. iv. 33), destroy Fidenoe with its own fires 
(the fires kindled by that city, figuratively). [Cf. Cat. i. 32.] 

d. The reflexive may depend upon a verbal noun or adjective: — 
sui laus, self-praise. 

habetis ducem memorem vestrl, oblitum sui (Cat. iv. 19), you have a leader 

mindful of you, forgetful of himself. 
perditi homines cum sui similibus servis (Phil. i. 5), abandoned men with 

slaves like themselves. 






§§ 301, 302] POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS 183 

e. The reflexive may refer to the subject implied in an infinitive 
or verbal abstract used indefinitely : — 

contentum suis rebus esse maximae sunt dlvitiae (Par. 51), the greatest 

wealth is to be content with one's own. 
*mi proposita sit conservatio sui (Fin. v. 37), one whose aim is self-preservation. 

f. Inter se (nos, vos), among themselves (ourselves, yourselves), is 
regularly used to express reciprocal action or relation : — 

inter se confligunt (Cat. i. 25), contend with each other. 
inter se continentur (Arch. 2), are joined to each other. 

Possessive Pronouns 

302. The Possessive Pronouns are derivative adjectives, which 
take the gender, number, and case of the noun to which they 
belong, not those of the possessor : — 

haec ornamenta sunt mea (Yal. iv. 4), these are my jewels, [mea is neuter 

plural, though the speaker is a woman.] 
mei sunt ordines, mea discrlptio (Cat. M. 59), mine are the rows, mine the 

arrangement, [mea is feminine, though the speaker is Cyrus.] 
multa in nostro collegia praeclara (id. 64), [there are] many fine things in 

our college, [nostro is neuter singular, though men are referred to. ] 
German! suas copias castris eduxerunt (B. G. i. 51), the Germans led their 
troops out of the camp. 

a. To express possession and similar ideas the possessive pro- 
nouns are regularly used, not the genitive of the personal or reflexive 
pronouns (§343. a): — 

domus mea, my house. [Not domus mei. ] 
pater noster, our father. [Not pater nostri.] 
patrimonium tuum, your inheritance. [Not tui.] 

Note 1. — Exceptions are rare in classic Latin, common in later writers. For 
the use of a possessive pronoun instead of an Objective Genitive, see § 348. a. 

Note 2. — The Interrogative Possessive cuius, -a, -um, occurs in poetry and early- 
Latin : as, — cuium pecus (Eel. iii. 1) , whose flock ? The genitive cuius is generally used 
instead. 

b. The possessives have often the acquired meaning of peculiar to, 
favorable or propitious toivards, the person or thing spoken of : — 

[petere] ut sua dementia ac mansuetudine iitatur (B. G. ii. 14), they asked 
(they said) that he would show his [wonted] clemency and humanity. 

ignorant! quern portum petat nullus suus ventus est (Sen. Ep. 71. 3), to 
him who knows not what port he is bound to, no wind is fair (his own). 

tempore tu5 ptignastl (Liv. xxxviii. 45. 10), did you fight at a fit timef 

Note. — This use is merely a natural development of the meaning of the possess* 
ive, and the pronoun may often be rendered literally. 



184 SYNTAX: PRONOUNS [§§302,303 

c. The possessives are regularly omitted (like other pronouns) 
when they are plainly implied in the context : — 

socium fraudavit, he cheated his partner, [socium suum would be distinctive, 
his partner (and not another's) ; suum socium, emphatic, his own partner. ] 

d. Possessive pronouns and adjectives implying possession* are 
often used substantively to denote some special class or relation : — 

nostri, our countrymen, or men of our party. 

suds continebat (B. G. i. 15), he held his men in check. 

flamma extrema meorum (Aen. ii. 431), last flames of my countrymen. 

Sullani, the veterans of Sulla 's army; PompeianI, the partisans of Pompey. 

Note. — There is no reason to suppose an ellipsis here. The adjective becomes 
a noun like other adjectives (see § 288). 

e. A possessive pronoun or an adjective implying possession may 
take an appositive in the genitive case agreeing in gender, number, 
and case with an implied noun or pronoun : — 

mea solius causa (Ter. Heaut. 129), for my sake only. 
in nostro omnium fletti (Mil. 92), amid the tears of us all. 
ex Anniana Milonis donao (Att. iv. 3. 3), out of Annius Milo's house. [Equiva- 
lent to ex Ann! Milonis domo.] 
nostra omnium patria, the country of us all. 
suum ipsius regnum, his own kingdom. 
For the special reflexive use of the possessive suus, see §§ 299, 300. 

Relative Pronouns 

303. A Relative Pronoun agrees with some word expressed or implied either in 
its own clause, or (often) in the antecedent (demonstrative) clause. In the fullest con- 
struction the antecedent is expressed in both clauses, with more commonly a corre- 
sponding demonstrative to which the relative refers : as, — iter in ea loca facere coepit, 
quibus in locis esse Germanos audiebat (B. G. iv. 7), he began to inarch into those 
places in which places he heard the Germans were. But one of these nouns is com- 
monly omitted. 

The antecedent is in Latin very frequently (rarely in English) found in the relative 
clause, but more commonly in the antecedent clause. 

Thus relatives serve two uses at the same time : — ■ 

1. As Nouns (or Adjectives) in their own clause: as, — el qui Alesiae obsidebantur 
(B. G. vii. 77), those who vjere besieged at Alesia. 

2. As Connectives: as, — T. Balventius, qui superiore anno primum pilum diixerat 
(id. v. 35), Titus Balventius, loho the year before had been a centurion of the first rank. 

When the antecedent is in a different sentence, the relative is often equivalent 
to a demonstrative with a conjunction: as, — quae cum ita sint (=et cum ea ita sint), 
[and] since this is so. 

The subordinating force did not belong to the relative originally, but was developed 
from an interrogative or indefinite meaning specialized by use. But the subordinat- 
ing and the later connective force were acquired by qui at such an early period that 
the steps of the process cannot now be traced. 



§§304-306] RELATIVE PRONOUNS 185 

304. A Relative Pronoun indicates a relation between its own 
clause and some substantive. This substantive is called the Ante- 
cedent of the relative. 

Thus, in the sentence — 
eum nihil delectabat quod fas esset (Mil. 43), nothing pleased him which was 
right, 
the relative quod connects its antecedent nihil with the predicate fas 
esset, indicating a relation between the two. 

305. A Relative agrees with its Antecedent in Grender and 
Number; but its Case depends on its construction in the clause 
in which it stands : — 

ea dies quam constituerat venit (B. G. i. 8), that day which he had appointed 

came. 
pontem qui erat ad Genavani iubet rescind! (id. i. 7), he orders the bridge 

which was near Geneva to be cut down. 
Aduatuci, de quibus supra diximus, domum reverterunt (id. ii. 29), the 

Aduatuci, of whom ice have spoken above, returned home. 

Note. — This rule applies to all relative words so far as they are variable in form: 
as, qualis, quantus, quicumque, etc. 

a. If a relative has two or more antecedents, it follows the rules 
for the agreement of predicate adjectives (§§ 286, 287) : — 

fllium et filiam, quds valde dilexit, uno tempore amisit, he lost at the same 

time a son and a daughter whom he dearly loved. 
grandes natu matres et parvuli liberi, quorum utrorumque aetas misericor- 
diam nostram reqnlrit (Verr. v. 129), aged matrons and little children, 
ivhose time of life in each case demands our compassion. 
otium atque clivitiae, quae prima mortales put-ant (Sail. Cat. 36), idleness and 

wealth, which men count the first (objects of desire), 
eae fmges et fructus quds terra gignit (N. D. ii. 37), those fruits and crops 
which the earth produces. 
For the Person of the verb agreeing with the Relative, see § 316. a. 

306. A Relative generally agrees in gender and number with an 
appositive or predicate noun in its own clause, rather than with 
an antecedent of different gender or number (cf. § 296. a): — 

mare etiam quern Neptunum esse dicebas (N. D. iii. 52), the sea, too, which 

you said was Neptune. [Not quod.] 
Thebae ipsae, quod Boeotiae caput est (Liv. xlii. 44), even Thebes, which is 

the chief city of Boeotia. [Not quae.] 

Note. — This rule is occasionally violated: as, — flumen quod appellatur Tamesis 
(B. G. v. 11), a river which is called the Thames. 



186 SYNTAX: PRONOUNS [§§306,307 

a. A relative occasionally agrees with its antecedent in case (by 

attraction) : — 

si aliquid agas eorum quorum consuestl (Fam. v. 14), if you should do some- 
thing of what you are used to do. [For eorum quae.] 
Note. — Occasionally the antecedent is attracted into the case of the relative : — 
urbem quam statuo vestra est (Aen. i. 573), the city which I am founding is yours. 
Naucratem, quern con venire volui, in navi non erat (PI. Am. 1009), Naucrates, 
whom Iivished to meet, ivas not on boai*d the ship. 

b, A relative may agree in gender and number with an implied 
antecedent : — 

quartum genus . . . qui in vetere aere alieno vacillant (Cat. ii. 21), a fourth 

class, who are staggering under old debts. 
unus ex eo numero qui paratl erant (lug. 35), one of the number [of those] 

who were ready. 
coniuravere pauci, de qua [i.e. coniuratione] dicam (Sail. Cat. 18), a few 

have conspired, of which [conspiracy] I will speak. 

Note. — So regularly when the antecedent is implied in a possessive pronoun : as, 
— nostra acta, quds tyrannos vocas (Vat. 29), the deeds of us, whom you call tyrants. 
[Here quds agrees with the nostrum (genitive plural) implied in nostra.] 

Antecedent of the Relative 

307. The Antecedent Noun sometimes appears in both clauses ; 
but usually only in the one that precedes. Sometimes it is 
wholly omitted. 

a. The antecedent noun may be repeated in the relative clause : — 
loci nattira erat haec quern locum nostri delegerant (B. G. ii. 18), the nature 

of the ground which our men had chosen was this. 

b. The antecedent noun may appear only in the relative clause, 
agreeing with the relative in case : — 

quas res in consulate nostro gessimus attigit hie versibns (Arch. 28), he has 
touched in verse the things which I did in my consulship. 

quae prima innocentis mini defensi5 est oblata suscepi (Sull. 92), I under- 
took the first defence of an innocent man that was offered me. 

Note. — In this case the relative clause usually comes first (cf. § 308. d) and a 
demonstrative usually stands in the antecedent clause : — 

quae pars civitatis calamitatem populo Romano intulerat, ea prmceps poenas per- 
solvit (B. G. i. 12), that part of the state which had brought disaster on the 
Roman people was the first to pay the penalty. 
quae gratia currum fuit vivis, eadem sequitur (Aen. vi. 653), the same pleasure 

that they took in chariots in their lifetime follows them (after death). 
qui fit ut nemo, quam sibi sortem ratio dederit, ilia contentus vivat (cf. Hor. S. i. 
1. 1), how does it happen that no one lives contented with the lot which choice 
has assigned him? 



§§ 307, 308] RELATIVE PRONOUNS 187 

c. The antecedent may be omitted, especially if it is indefinite : 

qui decimae legionis aquilam ferebat (B. G. iv. 25), [the man] who bore the 

eagle of the tenth legion. 
qui cognoscerent misit (id. i. 21), he sent [men] to reconnoitre. 

d. The phrase id quod or quae res may be used (instead of quod 
alone) to refer to a group of words or an idea : — 

[obtrectatum est] Gablnio dlcam anne Pompeio ? an utrique — id quod est 
verius? (Manil. 57), an affront has been offered — shall I say to Gabinius 
or to Pompey f or — which is truer — to both 1 

multum sunt in venationibus, quae res vires alit (B. G. iv. 1), they spend 
much time in hunting, which [practice] increases their strength. 

Note. — But quod alone often occurs : as, — Cassius noster, quod mihi magnae volup- 
tati fuit, hostem reiecerat (Fam. ii. 10), our friend Cassius — which was a great satis- 
faction to me — had driven back the enemy. 

e. The antecedent noun, when in apposition with the main clause, 
or with some word of it, is put in the relative clause : — 

firmi [amici], cuius generis est magna penuria (Lael. 62), steadfast friends, 
a class of which there is great lack (of which class there is, etc.). 

/. A predicate adjective (especially a superlative) belonging to the 
antecedent may stand in the relative clause : — 

vasa ea quae pulcherrima apud eum vlderat (Verr. iv. 63), those most beauti- 
ful vessels which he had seen at his house. [Nearly equivalent to the 
vessels of which he had seen some very beautiful ones.] 

Special Uses of the Relative 

308. In the use of Relatives, the following points are to be 
observed : — 

a. The relative is never omitted in Latin, as it often is in Eng- 
lish : — 

liber quem mihi dedisti, the book you gave me. 

is sum qui semper fill, I am the same man I always was. 

eo in loco est de quo tibi locutus sum, he is in the place I told you of 

b. "When two relative clauses are connected by a copulative con- 
junction, a relative pronoun sometimes stands in the first and a 
demonstrative in the last : — 

erat profectus obviam legionibus Macedonicis quattuor, quas sibi conciliate 
pecunia cogitabat easque ad urbem adducere (Fam. xii. 23. 2), he had 
set out to meet four legions from Macedonia, which he thought to win over 
to himself by a gift of money and to lead (them) to the city. 



188 SYNTAX: PRONOUNS [§308 

c. A relative clause in Latin often takes the place of some other 
construction in English, — particularly of a participle, an appositive, 
or a noun of agency : — 

leges quae nunc sunt, the existing laivs (the laws which now exist). 

Caesar qui Galliam vicit, Caesar the conqueror of Gaul. 

iusta gloria qui est fructus virttitis (Pison. 57), true glory [which is] the fruit 

of virtue. 
ille qui petit, the plaintiff (he who sues), 
qui legit, a reader (one who reads). 

d. In formal or emphatic discourse, the relative clause usually 
comes first, often containing the antecedent noun (cf . § 307. b) : — 

quae pars clvitatis Helvetiae Inslgneni calaniitatem populo Romano intulerat, 
ea prlnceps poenas persolvit (B. G. i. 12), the portion of the Helvetian 
state which had brought a serious disaster on the Roman people was the 
first to pay the penalty. 

Note. — In colloquial language, the relative clause in such cases often contains a 
redundant demonstrative pronoun which logically belongs in the antecedent clause: 
as, — ille qui consulte cavet, diutine uti bene licet partum bene (Plaut. Rud. 1240), 
he who is on his guard, he may long enjoy what he has well obtained. 

e* The relative with an abstract noun may be used in a parenthet- 
ical clause to characterize a person, like the English such : — - 

quae vestra prtidentia est (Cael. 45), such is your wisdom. [Equivalent to 

pro vestra prudentia.] 
audlsses comoedos vel lectorem vel lyristen, vel, quae mea liberalitas, omnes 
(Plin. Ep. i. 15), you would have listened to comedians, or a reader, or a 
lyre-player, or — such is my liberality — to all of them. 

/. A relative pronoun (or adverb) often stands at the beginning of 
an independent sentence or clause, serving to connect it with the 
sentence or clause that precedes : — 

Caesar statuit exspectandam classem; quae ubi convenit (B. G. iii. 14), 
Coesar decided that he must wait for the fleet; and when this had come 
together, etc. 
quae qui audiebant, and those who heard this (which things). 
quae cum ita sint, and since this is so. 

quorum quod simile factum (Cat. iv. 13), what deed of theirs like this? 
quo cum venisset, and when he had come there (whither when he had come). 

Note. — This arrangement is common even when another relative or an interrog- 
ative follows. The relative may usually be translated by an English demonstrative, 
with or without and. 

g. A relative adverb is regularly used in referring to an antecedent 
in the Locative case; so, often, to express any relation of place instead 
of the formal relative pronoun : — 



§§308-310] INDEFINITE PRONOUNS 189 

inortuus Cumis qu5 se contulerat (Liv. ii. 21), having died at Cumce, whither 
he had retired. [Here in quam urbem might be used, but not in quas.] 

locus quo aditus non erat, a place to which (whither) there was no access. 

regna unde genus diicis (Aen. v. 801), the kingdom from which you derive 
your race. 

unde petitur, the defendant (he from whom something is demanded). 

h. The relatives qui, qualis, quantus, quot, etc. are often rendered 
simply by as in English : ■ — 

idem quod semper, the same as always. 

cum esset talis qualem te esse video (Mur. 32), since he was such a man as I 

see you are. 
tanta dlmicatio quanta numquam fuit (Att. vii. 1. 2), such a fight as never 

was before. 
tot mala quot sidera (Ov. Tr. i. 5. 47), as many troubles as stars in the sky. 

i. The general construction of relatives is found in clauses intro- 
duced by relative adverbs : as, ubi, quo, unde, cum, quare. 

Indefinite Pronouns 

309. The Indefinite Pronouns are used to indicate that some 
person or thing is meant, without designating what one. 

310. Quis, quispiam, aliquis, quidam, are particular indefinites, mean- 
ing some, a certain, any. Of these, quis, any one, is least definite, 
and quidam, a certain one, most definite ; aliquis and quispiam, some 
one, stand between the two : — 

dixerit quis (quispiam), some one may say. 

aliqui philosophi ita putant, some philosophers think so. [quidam would mean 

certain persons denned to the speaker's mind, though not named.] 
habitant hie quaedam mulieres pauperculae (Ter. Ad. 647), some poor women 

live here [i.e. some women he knows of; some women or other w r ould 

be aliquae or nescio quae]. 

a. The indefinite quis is rare except in the combinations si quis, if 
any ; nisi quis, if any . . . not ; ne quis, lest any, in order that none ; 
num quis (ecquis), whether any ; and in relative clauses. 

h. The compounds quispiam and aliquis are often used instead of 
quis after si, nisi, ne, and num, and are rather more emphatic : — 
quid si hoc quispiam voluit deus (Ter. Eun. 875), what if some god had 

desired this ? 
nisi alicui suorum negotium daret (Nep. Dion. 8. 2), unless he should employ 

some one of his friends. 
cavebat Pompeius omnia, ne aliquid vos timeretis (Mil. 66), Pompey took 
every precaution, so that you might have no fear 



190 SYNTAX: PRONOUNS [§§311-313 

311. In a particular negative aliquis (aliqui), some one (some), is 
regularly used, where in a universal negative quisquam, any one, 
or ullus, any, would be required : — 

iustitia numquam nocet cuiquam (Fin. i. 50), justice never does harm to any- 
body, [alicui would mean to somebody who possesses it] 

non sine aliqud metti, not without some fear. But, — sine ull5 metti, without 
any fear. 

cum aliquid non habeas (Tusc. i. 88), when there is something you have not. 

Note. — The same distinction holds between quis and aliquis on the one hand, and 
quisquam (ullus) on the other, in conditional and other sentences when a negative is 
expressed or suggested : — 

si quisquam, ille sapiens fuit (Lael. 9), if any man was (ever) a sage, he was. 
dum praesidia ulla fuerunt (Rose. Am. 126), while there were any armed forces. 
si quid in te peccavi (Att. iii. 15. 4), if I have done wrong towards you [in any- 
particular case (see § 310)]. 

312. Quivis or quilibet (any one you will), quisquam, and the cor- 
responding adjective ullus, any at all, are general indefinites. 

Quivis and quilibet are used chiefly in affirmative clauses, quisquam 
and ullus in clauses where a universal negative is expressed or sug- 
gested : — 

non cuivis hominl contingit adire Corinthum (Hor. Ep. i. 17. 36), it is not every 

man's luck to go to Corinth. [n5n cuiquam would mean not any man's.] 

quemlibet modo aliquem (Acad. ii. 132), anybody you will, provided it be 

somebody. 
si quisquam est timidus, is ego sum (Fam. vi. 14. 1), if any man is timorous, 

I am he. 
si tempus est ullum hire hominis necandi (Mil. 9), if there is any occasion 
whatever when homicide is justifiable. 
Note. — The use of the indefinites is very various, and must be learned from the 
Lexicon and from practice. The choice among them may depend merely on the point 
of view of the speaker, so that they are often practically interchangeable . The differ- 
ences are (with few exceptions) those of logic, not of syntax. 

313. The distributives quisque (every), uterque (each of two), and 
unus quisque (every single one) are used in general assertions : — 

bonus liber melior est quisque quo maior (Plin. Ep. i. 20. 4), the larger a 

good book is, the better (each good book is better in proportion, etc.). 
ambo exercittis suas quisque abeunt domos (Liv. ii. 7. 1), both armies go 

away, every man to his home. 
uterque utrique erat exercitus in conspectu. (B. G. vii. 35), each army was 

in sight of the other (each to each), 
poniteante oculos unum quemque regum (Par. i. 11), pet before your eyes each 

of the kings. 



§§ 313, 314] INDEFINITE PRONOUNS 191 

a. Quisque regularly stands in a dependent clause, if there is one: — 

quo quisque est sollertior, hoc docet Iracundius (-Rose. Com. 31), the keener- 
witted a man is, the more impatiently he teaches. 
Note. — Quisque is generally postpositive 1 : as, suum cuique, to every man his own. 

b. Quisque is idiomatically used with superlatives and with ordinal 
numerals : — 

nobilissimus quisque, all the noblest (one after the other in the order of their 

nobility). 2 
primo quoque tempore (Rose. Am. 36), at the very first opportunity. 
antiquissimum quodque tempus (B. G. i. 45), the most ancient times. 
decimus quisque (id. v. 52), one in ten. 

Note 1. — Two superlatives with quisque imply a proportion : as,— sapientissimus 
quisque aequissimo animo moritur (Cat. M. 83), the wisest men die with the greatest 
equanimity. 

Note 2. — Quotus quisque has the signification of how many, pray ? often in a dis- 
paraging sense {how few) : — 

quotus enim quisque disertus? quotus quisque iuris peritus est (Plane. 62), for how 

feio are eloquent! how few are learned in the law ! 
quotus enim istud quisque fecisset (Lig. 26), for hoio many would have done this? 
[i.e. scarcely anybody would have done it]. 

314. Nemo, no one, is used of persons only — 

1. As a substantive : — 
neminem accusat, he accuses no one. 

2. As an adjective pronoun instead of nullus : — 

vir nem5 bonus (Legg. ii. 41), no good man. 

Note. — Even when used as a substantive, nemo may take a noun in apposition . 
as, — nemo scriptor, nobody [who is] a writer. 

a. Nullus, no, is commonly an adjective; but in the genitive and 
ablative singular it is regularly used instead of the corresponding 
cases of nemo, and in the plural it may be either an adjective or a. 
substantive : — 

nullum mittitur telum (B. C. ii. 13), not a missile is thrown. 

null5 hoste prohibente (B. G. iii. 6), without opposition from the enemy. 

nullius Insector calamitatem (Phil. ii. 98), I persecute the misfortune of no one. 

nullo adiuvante (id. x. 4), with the help of no one (no one helping). 

nulli erant praedones (Flacc. 28), there were no pirates. 

nulli eximentur (Pison. 94), none shall be taken away. 
For non nemo, non nullus (non nulli), see § 326. a. 

1 That is, it does not stand first in its clause. 

2 As, in taking things one by one off a pile, each thing is uppermost when you 
take it 



192 SYNTAX: PRONOUNS [§315 

Alius and Alter 

315. Alius means simply other, another (of an indefinite num- 
ber); alter, the other (of two), often the second in a series; ceterl 
and reliqui, all the rest, the others ; alteruter, one of the two : — 
propterea quod aliud iter haberent nullum (B. G. i. 7), because (as they 

said) they had no other way. 
uni epistulae respond!, venio ad alteram (Fam. ii. 17. 6), one letter I have 

answered, I come to the other. 
alterum genus (Cat. ii. 19), the second class. 
iecissem ipse me potius in profunduin ut ceteros conservarem (Sest. 45), I 

should have rather thrown myself into the deep to save the rest. 
Servilius consul, reliquique magistrates (B. C. iii. 21), Servilius the consul 

and the rest of the magistrates. 
cum sit necesse alterum utrum vincere (Fam. vi. 3), since it must be that one 
of the two should prevail. 
Note. — Alter is often used, especially with negatives, in reference to an indefinite 
number where one is opposed to all the rest taken singly : — 

dum ne sit te ditior alter (Hor. S. i. 1. 40), so long as another is not richer than 
you (lit. the other, there being at the moment only two persons considered). 
non ut magis alter, amicus (id. i. 5. 33), a friend such that no other is more so. 

a. The expressions alter . . . alter, the one . . . the other, alius . . . 
alius, one . . . another, may be used in pairs to denote either division 
of a group or reciprocity of action : — 

alter! dimicant, alter! victorem timent (Fam. vi. 3), one party fights, the 

other fears the victor. 
alteram alter! praesidio esse iusserat (B. C. iii. 89), he had ordered each (of 

the two legions) to support the other. 
alii gladiis adoriuntur, ali! fragmentls saeptorum (Sest. 79), some make an 

attack with swords, others with fragments of the railings. 
alius ex alio causam quaerit (B. G. vi. 37), they ask each other the reason. 
alius alium percontamur (PI. Stich. 370), we keep asking each other. 

h. Alius and alter are often used to express one as well as another 
(the other) of the objects referred to : — 
alter consulum, one of the [two] consuls. 

aliud est maledlcere, aliud accusare (Gael. 6), it is one thing to slander, 
another to accuse. 

c. Alius repeated in another case, or with an adverb from the same 
stem, expresses briefly a double statement : — 

alius aliud petit, one man seeks one thing, another another (another seeks 

another thing), 
iussit alios alibi fodere (Liv. xliv. 33), he ordered different persons to dig in 

different places. 
alii alio loco resistebant (B. C. ii. 39), some halted in one place, some in another. 



§§ 316, 317] VERB AND SUBJECT 193 

VERBS 
Agreement of Verb and Subject 

316. A Finite Verb agrees with its Subject in Number and Per- 
son: — 

ego statuo, I resolve. senatus decrevit, the senate ordered. 

silent leges inter anna (Mil. 11), the laws are dumb in time of war. 

Note. — In verb-forms containing a participle, the participle agrees with the sub- 
ject in gender and number (§ 286): — 

oratio est habita, the plea ivas delivered. bellum exortum est, a war arose. 

a. A verb having a relative as its subject takes the person of the 
expressed or implied antecedent : — ■ 

adsum qui feci (Aen. ix. 427), here am I who did it. 

tu, qui scis, omnem dlligentiam adhibebis (Att. v. 2. 3), you, who know, 

will use all diligence. 
videte quam despiciamur omnes qui sumus e municipiis (Phil. iii. 15), see 

how all of us oire scorned who are from the free towns. 

h. A verb sometimes agrees in number (and a participle in the verb- 
form in number and gender) with an appositive or predicate noun : — 

amantium irae amoris integratio est (Ter. And. 555), the quarrels of lovers 

are the renewal of love. 
non omnis error stultitia dicenda est (Div. ii. 90), not every error should be 

called folly. 
Corinthus lumen Graeciae exstmctum est (ef. Manil. 11), Corinth, the light 

of Greece, is put out. 

Double or Collective Subject 

317. Two or more Singular Subjects take a verb in the Plural: 

pater et avus mortui sunt, his father and grandfather are dead. 

Note. — So rarely (by synesis, § 280. a) when to a singular subject is attached an 
ablative with cum: as, — dux cum aliquot prmcipibus capiuntur (Liv. xxi. 60), the 
general and several leading men are taken. 

a. When subjects are of different persons, the verb is usually in 
the first person rather than the second, and in the second rather than 
the third : — 

si tu et Tullia valetis ego et Cicero valemus (Fam. xiv. 5), if you and Tullia 
are well, Cicero and I are well. [Notice that the first person is also 
first in order, not last, as by courtesy in English.] 

Note. — In case of different genders a participle in a verb-form follows the rule for 
predicate adjectives (see § 287. 2-4). 



194 SYNTAX: VERBS [§317 

b. If the subjects are connected by disjunctives (§ 223. a), or if 
they are considered as a single whole, the verb is usually singular : — 

quern neque fides neque ius iurandum neque ilium misericordia repressit 

(Ter. Ad. 306), not faith, nor oath, nay, nor mercy, checked him. 
senatus populusque Romanus intellegit (Fain. v. 8), the Roman senate and 

people understand. [But, neque Caesar neque ego habit! essemus (id. 

xi. 20), neither Coesar nor I should have been considered.'] 
fama et vita innocentis defenditur (Rose. Am. 15), the reputation and life of an 

innocent man are defended. 
est in eo virtus et probitas et summum officium summaque observantia (Fam. 

xiii. 28 a. 2), in him are to be found worth, uprightness, the highest sense 

of duty, and the greatest devotion. 

Note. — So almost always when the subjects are abstract nouns. 

c. When a verb belongs to two or more subjects separately, it often 
agrees with one and is understood with the others : — 

intercedit M. Antonius Q. Cassius tribuni plebis (B. C. i. 2), Mark Antony 
and Quintus Cassius, tribunes of the people, interpose. 

hoc mihi et PeripateticI et vetus Academia concedit (Acad. ii. 113), this both 
the Peripatetic philosophers and the Old Academy grant me. 

d. A collective noun commonly takes a verb in the singular ; but 
the plural is often found with collective nouns when individuals are 
thought of (§ 280. a) : — 

(1) senatus haec intellegit (Cat. i. 2), the senate is aware of this. 

ad hlberna exercitus redit (Liv. xxi. 22), the army returns to winter-quarters. 
plebes apatribus secessit (Sail. Cat. 33), the plebs seceded from the patricians. 

(2) pars praedas agebant (lug. 32), apart brought in booty. 

cum tanta multitudo lapides conicerent (B. G. ii. 6), when such a crowd were 
throwing stones. 

Note 1. — The point of view may change in the course of a sentence : as, — equita- 
tum omnem . . . quern habebat praemittit, qui videant (B. G. i. 15X he sent ahead all 
the cavalry he had, to see (who should see). 

Note 2. — The singular of a noun regularly denoting an individual is sometimes 
used collectively to denote a group : as, Poenus, the Carthaginians; miles, the soldiery; 
eques, the cavalry. 

e. Quisque, each, and unus quisque, every single one, have very often 
a plural verb, but may be considered as in partitive apposition with a 
plural subject implied (cf. § 282. a) : — 

sibi quisque habeant quod suum est (PL Cure. 180), let every one keep his 
own (let them keep every man his own). 

Note. — So also uterque, each (of two), and the reciprocal phrases alius . . . alium, 
alter . . . alterum (§ 315. a) . 






§§ 318, 319J OMISSION OE SUBJECT OR VERB 195 

Omission of Subject or Verb 

318. The Subject of the Verb is sometimes omitted : — 

a. A Personal pronoun, as subject, is usually omitted unless em- 
phatic : — 

loquor, I speak. But, ego loquor, it is I that speak. 

b. An indefinite subject is often omitted : — crederes, you would 
have supposed ; putamus, we (people) think; dicunt, ferunt, perhibent, 
they say, 

c. A passive verb is often used impersonally without a subject ex- 
pressed or understood (§ 208. d): — 

dm atque acriter pugnatum est (B. G. i. 26), they fought long and vigorously. 

319. The verb is sometimes omitted : — 

a. Dico, facio, ago, and other common verbs are often omitted in 
familiar phrases : — 

quorsum haec [spectant], what does this aim at? 

ex ungue leonem [cognosces] , you will know a lion by his claw. 

quid multa, what need of many words ? (why should I say much ?) 

quid ? quod, what of this, that . . . ? (what shall I say of this, that . . . ?) 

[A form of transition.] 
Aeolus haec contra (Aen. i. 76), JEolus thus [spoke] in reply. 
turn Cotta [inquit], then said Cotta. 
dl meliora [duint] ! (Cat. M. 47), Heaven forfend (may the gods grant better 

things) ! 
unde [venls] et quo [tendis] ? (Hor. S. ii. 4. 1), where from and whither 

bound? [Cf. id. i. 9. 62 for the full form.] 

b. The copula sum is very commonly omitted in the present indica- 
tive and present infinitive, rarely (except by late authors) in the sub- 
junctive : — 

tti coniunx (Aen. iv. 113), you [are] his wife. 

quid ergo ? audacissimus ego ex omnibus (Rose. Am. 2), what then ? am I 
the boldest of all ? 

omnia praeclara rara (Lael. 79), all the best things are rare. 

potest incidere saepe contentio et comparatio de duobus honestis utrum 
honestius (Off. i. 152), there may often occur a comparison of two 
honorable actions, as to which is the more honorable. [Here, if any 
copula were expressed, it would be sit, but the direct question would 
be complete without any.] 

accipe quae peragenda prius (Aen. vi. 136), hear what is first to be accom- 
plished. [Direct : quae peragenda prius ?] 



196 SYNTAX : PARTICLES [§§ 320, 321 



Particles 
Adverbs 



t21 



320. The proper function of Adverbs, as petrified case-forms, is to modify Verbs : 
as, — celeriter ire, to go with speed. It is from this use that they derive their name 
(adverbium, from ad, to, and verbum, verb; see § 241. b). They also modify adjectives, 
showing in what manner or degree the quality described is manifested : as, splendide 
mendax, gloriously false. More rarely they modify other adverbs : as, nimis graviter, 
too severely. Many adverbs, especially relative adverbs, serve as connectives, and 
are hardly to be distinguished from conjunctions (see § 20. g. n.). 1 

321. Adverbs are used to modify Verbs, Adjectives, and other 
Adverbs. 

a. A Demonstrative or Eelative adverb is often equivalent to the 
corresponding Pronoun with a preposition (see § 308. g) : — 

e5 [ = in ea] imponit vasa (lug. 75), upon them (thither, thereon, on the 

beasts) he puts the camp-utensils. 
eo milites imponere (B. G. i. 42), to put soldiers upon them (the horses). 
apud eos qu5 [ = ad quds] se contulit (Verr. iv. 38), among those to whom 

(whither) he resorted. 
qui euin necasset unde [ = quo] ipse natus esset (Rose. Am. 71), one who should 

have killed his own father (him whence he had his birth). 
5 condiciones miseras administrandarum provinciarum ubi [ = in quibus] 

severities periculosa est (Flacc. 87), 0! wretched terms of managing the 

provinces, where strictness is dangerous. 

b. The participles dictum and factum, when used as nouns, are regu- 
larly modified by adverbs rather than by adjectives ; so occasionally 
other perfect participles : — 

praeclare facta (Nep. Timoth. 1), glorious deeds (things gloriously done), 
multa facete dicta (Off. i. 104), many witty sayings. 

c. A noun is sometimes used as an adjective, and may then be modi- 
fied by an adverb : — 

victor exercitus, the victorious army. 

admodum puer, quite a boy (young). 

magis vir, more of a man (more manly). 

populum late regem (Aen. i. 21), a people ruling far and wide. 

Note. — Very rarely adverbs are used with nouns which have no adjective force 
but which contain a verbal idea : — 

hinc abitio (Plaut. Rud. 503), a going away from here. 

quid cogitem de obviam itione (Att. xiii. 50), what I think about going to meet 
(him). [Perhaps felt as a compound.] 

1 For the derivation and classification of adverbs, see §§ 214-217. 



§§ 321, 322] ADVERBS 197 

d. A few adverbs appear to be used like adjectives. Such are 
obviam, palam, sometimes contra, and occasionally others : — 

fit obviam Clodio (Mil. 29), he falls in with (becomes in the way of) Clodius. 

[Cf. the adjective obvius : as, — si ille obvius el futurus non erat (id. 47), 

if he was not likely to fall in with him.] 
haec commemoro quae sunt palam (Pison. 11), I mention these facts, which 

are well-known. 
alia probabilia, contra alia dicimus (Off. ii. 7), we call some things probable, 

others the opposite (not probable). [In this use, contra contradicts a 

previous adjective, and so in a manner repeats it.] 
eri semper lenitas (Ter. And. 175), my master's constant (always) gentleness. 

[An imitation of a Greek construction.] 

Note. — In some cases one can hardly say whether the adverb is treated as an 
adjective modifying the noun, or the noun modified is treated as an adjective (as in 
c above) . 

For propius, pridie, palam, and other adverbs used as prepositions, see § 432. 

322. The following adverbs require special notice : — 

a, Etiam (et iam), also, even, is stronger than quoque, also, and 
usually precedes the emphatic word, while quoque follows it : — 

non verbis solum sed etiam vi (Verr. ii. 64), not only by words, but also by 

force. 
hoc quoque maleficium (Rose. Am. 117), this crime too. 

b. Nunc 1 means definitely now, in the immediate present, and is 
rarely used of the immediate past. 

lam means now, already, at length, presently, and includes a refer- 
ence to previous time through which the state of things described has 
been or will be reached. It may be used of any time. With nega- 
tives iam means (no) longer. 

Turn, then, is correlative to cum, when, and may be used of any 
time. Tunc, then, at that time, is a strengthened form of turn 
(ftum-ce, cf . nunc) : — 

ut iam antea dlxi, as I have already said before. 

si iam satis aetatis atque roboris haberet (Rose. Am. 149), if he had attained 
a suitable age and strength (lit. if he now had, as he will have by and by), 
non est iam lenitatl locus, there is no longer room for mercy. 
quod iam erat Institutum, which had come to be a practice (had now been 

established), 
nunc quidem deleta est, tuncflorebat (Lael. 13), now ('tis true) she [Greece] 

is ruined, then she was in her glory. 
turn cum regnabat, at the time when he reigned. 

i For f sum-ce ; cf. tunc (for ttum-ce). 



198 SYNTAX: PARTICLES [§§322,323 

c. Certo means certainly, certe (usually) at least, at any rate: — 
certo scio, I know for a certainty ; ego certe, I at least. 

d. Primum means first (first in order, or for the first time), and 
implies a series of events or acts. Primo means at first, as opposed 
to afterwards, giving prominence merely to the difference of time : — 

hoc primum sentio, this I hold in the first place. 

aedis primd mere rebamur, at first we thought the house was falling. 

Note. — In enumerations, primum (or primo) is often followed by deinde, secondly, in 
the next place, or by turn, then, or by both in succession. Deinde may be several times 
repeated {secondly, thirdly, etc.). The series is often closed by denique or postremo, 
lastly, finally. Thus,— primum de genere belli, deinde de magnitudine, turn de im- 
peratore deligendo (Manil. 6), first of the kind of war, next of Us magnitude, then of 
the choice of a commander. 

e. Quidem, indeed, gives emphasis, and often has a concessive mean- 
ing, especially when followed by sed, autem, etc. : — 

hoc quidem videre licet (Lael. 54), this surely one may see. [Emphatic] 
[securitas] specie quidem blanda, sed reapse nrnltls locls repudianda (id. 47), 

(tranquillity) in appearance, H is true, attractive, but in reality to be 

rejected for many reasons. [Concessive.] 

/. N6 . . . quidem means not even or not . . . either. The emphatic 
word or words must stand between ne and quidem : — 

sed ne Iugurtha quidem quietus erat (lug. 51), but Jugurtha was not quiet 

either. 
ego autem ne Irasci possum quidem iis quos valde am5 (Att. ii. 19. 1), but 1 

cannot even get angry with those whom I love very much. 

Note. — Equidem has the same senses as quidem, but is in Cicero confined to the 
first person. Thus, — equidem adprobabo (Fam. ii. 3. 2), I for my part shall approve. 



CONJUNCTIONS * 

323. Copulative and Disjunctive Conjunctions connect similar 

constructions, and are regularly followed by the same case or mood 

that precedes them: — 

scriptum senatui et populo (Cat. iii. 10), written to the senate and people. 
ut eas [partis] sanares et conflrmares (Mil. 68), that you might cure and 

strengthen those parts. 
neque mea prudentia neque humanis consiliis fretus (Cat. ii. 29), relying 

neither on my own foresight nor on human wisdom. 

1 For the classification of conjunctions, see §§ 223, 224. 



§ 323] CONJUNCTIONS 199 

a. Conjunctions of Comparison (as ut, quam, tamquam, quasi) also 
commonly connect similar constructions : — 

his igitur quam physicls potius credendum existimas (Div. ii. 37), do you 

think these are more to be trusted than the natural philosophers f 
hominem callidiorem vldi neminem quam Phormionem (Ter. Ph. 591), a 

shrewder man I never saw than Phormio (cf. § 407). 
ut non omne vinum sic non omnis natura vetustate coacescit (Cat. M. 65), 

as every wine does not sour with age, so [does] not every nature. 
in me quasi in tyrannura (Phil. xiv. 15), against me as against a tyrant. 

h. Two or more coordinate words, phrases, or sentences are often 
put together without the use of conjunctions (Asyndeton, § 601. c) : 
omnes dl, homines, all gods and men. 

summl, medii, Infimi, the highest, the middle class, and the lowest. 
iura, leges, agros, Hbertatem nobis rellquerunt (B. G. vii. 77), they have left 
us our rights, our laws, our fields, our liberty. 

c. 1. Where there are more than two coordinate words etc., a con- 
junction, if used, is ordinarily used with all (or all except the first) : — 

aut aere alieno aut magnitudine tributorum aut iniuria potentiorum (B. G. 

vi. 13), by debt, excessive taxation, or oppression on the part of the 

powerful. 
at sunt morosi et anxii et Iracundi et difficiles senes (Cat. M. 65), but (you 

say) old men are capricious, solicitous, choleric, and fussy. 

2. But words are often so divided into groups that the members 
of the groups omit the conjunction (or express it), while the groups 
themselves express the conjunction (or omit it) : — 

propudium illud et portentum, L. Antonius Insigne odium omnium homi- 
num (Phil. xiv. 8), that wretch and monster, Lucius Antonius, the abomi- 
nation of all men. 

utrumque egit graviter, auctoritate et offensione animi non acerba (Lael. 
77), he acted in both cases with dignity, without loss of authority and 
with no bitterness of feeling. 

3. The enclitic -que is sometimes used with the last member of a 
series, even when there is no grouping apparent: — 

voce voltti motuque (Brut. 110), by voice, expression, and gesture. 
ciiram consilium vigilantiamque (Phil. vii. 20), care, wisdom, and vigilance. 
quorum auctoritate m dignitatem voluntatemque defenderas (Fam. i. 7. 2), 
whose dignity, honor, and wishes you had defended. 

d. Two adjectives belonging to the same noun are regularly con- 
nected by a conjunction : — 

multae et graves causae, many weighty reasons. 

vir liber ac fortis (Rep. ii. 34), a free and brave man. 



20 G SYNTAX: PARTICLES [§§ 323, 324 

e. Often the same conjunction is repeated in two coordinate clauses : 
et . . . et (-que . . . -que), both . . . and. 
aut . . . aut, either . . . or. 

vel . . . vel, either . . . or. [Examples in § 324. e.] 
sive (seu) . . . sive (seu), whether . . . or. [Examples in §324./.] 

/• Many adverbs are similarly used in pairs, as conjunctions, partly 
or wholly losing their adverbial force : — 

nunc . . . nunc, turn . . . turn, iam . . . iam, now . . . now. 

modo . . . modo, now . . . now. 

8imul . . . simul, at the same time . . . at the same time. 

qua . . . qua, now . . . now, both . . . and, alike [this] and [that]. 

modo ait modo negat (Ter. Eun. 714), now he says yes, now no. 

simul gratias agit, simul gratulatur (Q. C. vi. 7. 15), he thanks him and at 

the same time congratulates him. 
erumpunt saepe vitia amicorum turn in ipsos amicos turn in alienos (Lael. 

76), the faults of friends sometimes break out, now against their friends 

themselves, now against strangers. 
qua maris qua feminas (PI. Mil. 1113), both males and females. 

g. Certain relative and demonstrative adverbs are used correla- 
tively as conjunctions: — 

ut (rel.) . . . ita, sic (dem.), as (while) . . . so (yet). 

tarn (dem.) . . . quam (rel.), so (as) . . . as. 

cum (rel.) . . . turn (dem.), while . . . so also; not only . . . but also. 

324. The following Conjunctions require notice : — 

a. Et, and, simply connects words or clauses ; -que combines more 
closely into one connected whole, -que is always enclitic to the word 
connected or to the first or second of two or more words connected : 

cum coniugibus et llberis, with [their] wives and children. 

ferro ignique, with fire and sword. [Not as separate things, but as the 

combined means of devastation.] 
aqua et igni interdictus, forbidden the use of water and fire. [In a legal 

formula, where they are considered separately.] 

b. Atque (ac), and, adds with some emphasis or with some implied 
reflection on the word added. Hence it is often equivalent to and so, 
and yet, and besides, and then. But these distinctions depend very 
much upon the feeling of the speaker, and are often untranslatable : — 

omnia honesta atque inhonesta, everything honorable and dishonorable (too, 

without the slightest distinction). 
usus atque disciplina, practice and theory beside (the more important or less 

expected). 
atque ego credo, and yet I believe (for my part). 



§ 324] CONJUNCTIONS 201 

c. Atque (ac), in the sense of as, than, is also used after words of 
comparison and likeness : — 

simul atque, as soon as. 

non secus (non aliter) ac si, not otherwise than if. 
pro eo ac debui, as was my duty (in accordance as I ought), 
aeque ac tii, as much as you. 

haud minus ac iussi f aciunt, they do just as they are ordered. 
For and not, see § 328. a. 

d. Sed and the more emphatic verum or vero, but, are used to intro- 
duce something in opposition to what precedes, especially after nega- 
tives (not this . . . but something else). At (old form ast) introduces 
with emphasis a new point in an argument, but is also used like the 
others ; sometimes it means at least. At enim is almost always used 
to introduce a supposed objection which is presently to be overthrown. 
At is more rarely used alone in this sense. 

Autem, however, now, is the weakest of the adversatives, and often 
marks a mere transition and has hardly any adversative force percep- 
tible. Atqui, however, now, sometimes introduces an objection and 
sometimes a fresh step in the reasoning. Quod si, but if, and if, now if, 
is used to continue an argument. 

Note. — Et, -que, and atque (ac) are sometimes used where the English idiom would 
suggest but, especially when a negative clause is followed by an affirmative clause 
continuing the same thought: as, — impetum hostes ferre non potuerunt ac terga 
verterunt (B. G. iv. 35), the enemy could not stand the onset, but tuimed their backs. 

e. Aut, or, excludes the alternative; vel (an old imperative of volo) 
and -ve give a choice between two alternatives. But this distinction 
is not always observed : — 

sed quis ego sum aut quae est in me facultas (Lael. 17), but who am I or 

what special capacity have I? [Here vel could not be used, because in 

fact a negative is implied and both alternatives are excluded.] 
aut bibat aut abeat (Tusc. v. 118), let him drink or (if he won't do that, then 

let him) quit. [Here vel would mean, let him do either as he chooses.] 
vita talis fuit vel fortuna vel gloria (Lael. 12), his life was such either in 

respect to fortune or fame (whichever way you look at it), 
si propinquos habeant imbecilliores vel animo vel fortuna (id. 70), if they 

have relatives beneath them either in spirit or in fortune (in either respect, 

for example, or in both). 
aut deorum aut regum filii (id. 70), sons either of gods or of kings. [Here 

one case would exclude the other.] 
implicati vel usu diuturno vel etiam officiis (id. 85), entangled either by 

close intimacy or even by obligations. [Here the second case might 

exclude the first.] 



202 SYNTAX: THE SENTENCE [§324 

/. Sive (seu) is properly used in disjunctive conditions (if either . . . 
or if), but also with alternative words and clauses, especially with 
two names for the same thing : — 

sive inridens sive quod ita putaret (De Or. i. 91), either laughingly or because 

he really thought so. 
sive deae seu sint volucres (Aen. iii. 262), whether they (the Harpies) are 
goddesses or birds. 

g. Vel, even, for instance, is often used as an intensive particle with 
no alternative force : as, — vel minimus, the very least, 

h. Nam and namque, for, usually introduce a real reason, formally 
expressed, for a previous statement; enim (always postpositive), a 
less important explanatory circumstance put in by the way ; etenim 
(for, you see ; for, you know ; for, mind you) and its negative neque 
enim introduce something self-evident or needing no proof. 

(ea vita) quae est sola vita nominanda. nam dum sumus inclusi in his 
compagibus corporis, nmnere quodam necessitatis et gravi opere per- 
fungimur; est enim animus caelestis, etc. (Cat. M. 77), (that life) 
which alone deserves to be called life ; for so long as we are confined by 
the body's frame, we perform a sort of necessary function and heavy 
task. For the soul is from heaven. 

harum trium sententiarum null! prorsus adsentior. nee enim ilia prima 
vera est (Lael. 57), for of course that first one isnH true. 

i. Ergo, therefore, is used of things proved formally, but often has 
a weakened force. Igitur, then, accordingly, is weaker than ergo and 
is used in passing from one stage of an argument to another. Itaque, 
therefore, accordingly, and so, is used in proofs or inferences from the 
nature of things rather than in formal logical proof. All of these are 
often used merely to resume a train of thought broken by a digression 
or parenthesis. Idcirco, for this reason, on this account, is regularly 
followed (or preceded) by a correlative (as, quia, quod, si, ut, ne), and 
refers to the special point introduced by the correlative. 

malum mihi videtur esse mors, est miserum igitur, quoniam malum, certe. 
ergo et ei quibus evenit iam ut morerentur et el quibus eventurum est 
miseri. mihi ita videtur. nemo erg5 non miser. (Tusc. i. 9.) Death 
seems to me to be an evil. i It is wretched, then, since it is an evil. ' Certainly. 
4 Therefore, all those who have already died and who are to die hereafter are 
wretched. ' So it appears to me. ' There is no one, therefore, who is not 
wretched. ' 
quia natura mtitari non potest, idcircS verae amlcitiae sempiternae sunt 
(Lael. 32), because nature cannot be changed, for this reason true friend- 
ships are eternal. 



§§324-326} NEGATIVE PARTICLES 203 

j. Autem, enim, and vero are postpositive l ; so generally igitur and 
often tamen. 

fc. Two conjunctions of similar meaning are often used together 
for the sake of emphasis or to bind a sentence more closely to what 
precedes : as, at vero, but in truth, but surely, still, however; itaque 
ergo, accordingly then; namque, for; et-enim, for, you see, for of 
course (§ 324. h). 

For Conjunctions introducing Subordinate Clauses, see Syntax. 

Negative Particles 2 

325. In the use of the Negative Particles, the following points 
are to be observed : — 

326. Two negatives are equivalent to an affirmative : — 

nemd n5n audiet, every one will hear (nobody will not hear). 
n5n possum non confiteri (Fam. ix. 14. 1), I must confess. 
ut . . . ne non timere quidem sine aliquo timore possluius (Mil. 2), so that we 
cannot even be relieved of fear without some fear. 

a. Many compounds or phrases of which non is the first part express 
an indefinite affirmative : — 

non nullus, some; non nulll (=aliqul), some few. 
non nihil (=aliquid), something. 
non nemo (= aliquot), sundry persons. 
non numquam (= aliquo tiens), sometimes. 

b. Two negatives of which the second is non (belonging to the 
predicate) express a universal affirmative : — 

nemo non, nullus non, nobody [does] not, i.e. everybody [does]. [Cf. non 

nemo, not nobody, i.e. somebody.] 
nihil non, everything. [Cf. non nihil, something. ,] 
numquam non, never not, i.e. always. [Cf. non numquam, sometimes.] 

c. A statement is often made emphatic by denying its contrary 
(Litotes, § 641) : — 

non semel ( = saepissime), often enough (not once only). 

non haec sine numine dlvom eveniunt (Aen. ii. 777), these things do not 

occur without the will of the gods. 
haec non nimis exqulro (Att. vii. 18. 3), not very much, i.e. very little. 
Note. — Compare non nullus, non nemo, etc., in a above. 

1 That is, they do not stand first in their clause. 

2 For a list of Negative Particles, see § 217. e. 



204 SYNTAX: PARTICLES [§§327-329 

327. A general negation is not destroyed — 

1. By a following ne . . . quidem, not even, or non modo, not only : — 
numquam tu non modo otiuin, sed ne bellum quidem nisi nefarium concuplstl 

(Cat. i. 25), not only have you never desired repose, but you have never 
desired any war except one which was infamous. 

2. By succeeding negatives each introducing a separate subordi- 
nate member : — 

eaque nesciebant nee ubi nee qualia essent (Tusc. iii. 4), they knew not where 
or of what kind these things were. 

3. By neque introducing a coordinate member : — 

nequeo satis mlrari neque conicere (Ter. Eun. 547), I cannot wonder enough 
nor conjecture. 

328. The negative is frequently joined with a conjunction or 
with an indefinite pronoun or adverb. Hence the forms of nega- 
tion in Latin differ from those in English in many expressions : — 

null! (neutri) credo (not non credo ulli), I do not believe either (I believe 

neither), 
sine ulld perlculo (less commonly cum nullo), with no danger (without any 

danger). 
nihil umquam audivi iucundius, I never heard anything more amusing. 
Cf. neg5 haec esse vera (not died non esse), I say this is not true (I deny, etc.). 

a. In the second of two connected ideas, and not is regularly ex- 
pressed by neque (nee), not by et non : — 

hostes terga verterunt, neque prius fugere destiterunt (B. G. i. 53), the enemy 
turned and fled, and did not stop fleeing until, etc. 

Note. — Similarly nee quisquam is regularly used for et nemo; neque ullus for et 
nullus; nee umquam for et numquam; neve (neu), for et ne. 

329. The particle immo, nay, is used to contradict some part of 
a preceding statement or question, or its form ; in the latter case, 
the same statement is often repeated in a stronger form, so that 
immo becomes nearly equivalent to yes {nay but, nay rather) : — 

causa igitur non bona est? immo optima (Att. ix. 7. 4), is the cause then not 
a good one f on the contrary, the best. 

a. Minus, less (especially with si, if, quo, in order that), and minime, 
least, often have a negative force : — 

si minus possunt, if they cannot. [For quo minus, see § 558. b.] 
audacissimus ego ex omnibus? minime (Rose. Am. 2), am I the boldest of 
them all ? by no means (not at all) . 



§§330-332] FORMS OF INTERROGATION 205 

QUESTIONS 
Forms of Interrogation 

330. Questions are either Direct or Indirect. 

1. A Direct Question gives the exact words of the speaker : — 
quid est ? what is it ? ubi sum ? where am If 

2. An Indirect Question gives the substance of the question, adapted 
to the form of the sentence in which it is quoted. It depends on a verb 
or other expression of asking, doubting, knoiving, or the like : — 

rogavit quid esset, he asked what it was. [Direct : quid est, what is it ?] 
nescio ubi sim, I know not where I. am. [Direct : ubi sum, where am If] 

331. Questions in Latin are introduced by special interrogative 
words, and are not distinguished by the order of words, as in 
English. 1 

Note. — The form of Indirect Questions (in English introduced by ivhether, or by 
an interrogative pronoun or adverb) is in Latin the same as that of Direct ; the differ- 
ence being only in the verb, which in indirect questions is regularly in the Subjunc- 
tive (§574). 

332. A question of simple fact, requiring the answer yes or no, 
is formed by adding the enclitic -ne to the emphatic word : — 

tune id veritus es (Q. Fr. i. 3. 1), did you fear that ? 

hicine vir usquam nisi in patria morietur (Mil. 104), shall this man die any- 
where but in his native land f 

is tibi mortemne videtur aut dolorem timere (Tusc. v. 88), does he seem to 
you to fear death or pain ? 

a. The interrogative particle -ne is sometimes omitted : — 
patere tua consilia non sentls (Cat. i. 1), do you not see that your schemes are 

manifest ? (you do not see, eh ?) 
Note. — In such cases, as no sign of interrogation appears, it is often doubtful 
whether the sentence is a question or an ironical statement. 

b. When the enclitic -ne is added to a negative word, as in nonne, 
an affirmative answer is expected. The particle num suggests a nega- 
tive answer : — 

nonne animadvertis (N. D. iii. 89), do you not observe? 
num dubium est (Rose. Am. 107), there is no doubt, is there? 
Note. — In Indirect Questions num commonly loses its peculiar force and means 
simply whether. 

1 For a list of Interrogative Particles, see § 217. d. 



206 SYNTAX: QUESTIONS [§§332-335 

c. The particle -ne often when added to the verb, less commonly 
when added to some other word, has the force of nonne : — 

meministme me in senatu. dlcere (Cat. i. 7), don't you remember my saying 

in the Senate ? 
rectene interpreter sententiam tnam (Tusc. iii. 37), do I not rightly interpret 
your meaning? 
Note 1. — This was evidently the original meaning of -ne ; but in most cases the 
negative force was lost and -ne was used merely to express a question. So the English 
interrogative no ? shades off into eh ? 

Note 2. — The enclitic -ne is sometimes added to other interrogative words : as, 
utrumne, whether? anne, or; quantane (Hor. S. ii. 3. 317), how big? quone maid (id. ii. 3. 
295), by what curse? 

333. A question concerning some special circumstance is formed 
by prefixing to the sentence an interrogative pronoun or adverb 
as in English (§ 152) : — 

quid exspectas (Cat. ii. 18), what are you looking forward to? 

qu5 igitur haec spectant (Fam. vi. 6. 11), whither then is all this tending? 

Icare, ubi es (Ov. M. viii. 232), Icarus, where are you? 

quod vectigal vobis tutum fuit ? quem socium def endistis ? cui praesidio 

classibus vestrls fuistis ? (Manil. 32), what revenue has been safe for you ? 

what ally have you defended ? whom have you guarded with your fleets ? 
Note. — A question of this form becomes an exclamation by changing the tone of 
the voice: as, — 

qualis vir erat! what a man he was! 

quot calamitates pass! sumus! hoio many misfortunes we have suffered! 

quo studio consentiunt (Cat. iv. 15), with what zeal they unite! 

a. The particles -nam (enclitic) and tandem may be added to inter- 
rogative pronouns and adverbs for the sake of emphasis : — 
quisnam est, pray who is it? [quis tandem est? would be stronger.] 
ubinam gentium sumus (Cat. i. 9), where in the zoorld are we? 
in qua tandem urbe hoc disputant (Mil. 7), in what city, pray, do they main- 
tain this ? 
Note — Tandem is sometimes added to verbs : — 
ain tandem (Fam. ix. 21), you don't say so! (say you so, pray?) 
itane tandem uxorem duxit Antipho (Ter. Ph. 231), so then, eh? Antipho's got 
married. 

Double Questions 

334. A Double or Alternative Question is an inquiry as to 
which of two or more supposed cases is the true one. 

335. In Double or Alternative Questions, utrum or -ne, whether, 
stands in the first member ; an, anne, or, annon, necne, or not, in the 
second ; and usually an in the third, if there be one : — 



§335] DOUBLE QUESTIONS 207 

utrum nescis, an pro nihilo id putas (Fam. x. 26), is it that you donH know, 

or do you think nothing of it ? 
vosne L. Domitium an vos Domitius deseruit (B. C. ii. 32), did you desert 

Lucius Domitius, or did Domitius desert you ? 
quaero servosne an llberos (Rose. Am. 74), I ask whether slaves or free. 
utrum hostem an vos an fortunam utrlusque popull Ignoratis (Liv. xxi. 10), 

is it the enemy, or yourselves, or the fortune of the two peoples, that you 

do not know f 

Note. — Anne for an is rare. Necne is rare iu direct questions, but in indirect ques- 
tions it is commoner than annon. In poetry -ne . . . -ne sometimes occurs. 

a. The interrogative particle is often omitted in the first mem- 
ber ; in which case an or -ne (anne, necne) may stand in the second: — 

Gablnio dlcam anne Pompeio an utrlque (Manil. 57), shall I say to Gabinius, 

or to Pompey, or to both f 
sunt haec tua verba necne (Tusc. iii. 41), are these your words or not? 
quaesivi a Catillna in conventu apud M. Laecam fuisset necne (Cat. ii. 13), 

I asked Catiline whether he had been at the meeting at Marcus Lceca^s 

or not. 

b. Sometimes the first member is omitted or implied, and an (anne) 
alone asks the question, — usually with indignation or surprise : — 

an tu miseros putas illos (Tusc. i. 13), what ! do you think those men wretched f 
an iste umquam de se bonam spem habuisset, nisi de vobis malam oplnionem 
animo imbibisset (Verr. i. 42), would he ever have had good hopes about 
himself unless he had conceived an evil opinion of you f 

c. Sometimes the second member is omitted or implied, and utrum 
may ask a question to which there is no alternative : — 

utrum est in clarissimls clvibus is, quern . . . (Flacc. 45), is he among the 
noblest citizens, whom, etc.? 

d. The following table exhibits the various forms of alternative 
questions : — 



utrum . 


. an ... an 


utrum . 


. annon (necne., see § 335. n.) 


. 


. an (anne) 


-ne 


. an 


. 


. -ne, necne 


-ne 


. necne 


-ne 


. -ne 



Note. — From double {alternative) questions must be distinguished those which are 
in themselves single, but of which some detail is alternative. These have the common 
disjunctive particles aut or vel (-ve). Thus, — quaero num iniuste aut improbe fecerit 
(Off. iii. 54), I ask whether he acted unjustly or even dishonestly. Here there is no 
double question. The only inquiry is whether the man did either of the two things 
supposed, not which of the two he did. 



208 SYNTAX: QUESTIONS [§§336,337 

Question and Answer 

336. There is no one Latin word in common use meaning sim- 
ply yes or no. In answering a question affirmatively, the verb or 
some other emphatic word is generally repeated ; in answering 
negatively, the verb, etc., with non or a similar negative : — 

valetne, is he well? valet, yes (he is well). 

eratne tecum, ivas he with you? non erat, no (he was not). 

num quidnam novi? there is nothing new, is there? nihil sane, oh! nothing. 

a. An intensive or negative particle, a phrase, or a clause is some- 
times used to answer a direct question : — 

1. For yes : — 

vero, in truth, true, no doubt, yes. ita vero, certainly (so in truth), etc. 

etiam, even so, yes, etc. sane quidem, yes, no doubt, etc. 

ita, so, true, etc. ita est, it is so, true, etc. 

sane, surely, no doubt, doubtless, etc. 

certe, certainly, unquestionably, etc. 

factum, true, Ws a fact, you're right, etc. (lit., it was done). 

2. For no : — 

non, not so. nullo modo, by no means. 

minime, not at all (lit., in the smallest degree, cf. § 329. a). 

minime vero, no, not by any means; oh! no, etc. 

non quidem, why, no; certainly not, etc. 

non hercle vero, why, gracious, no ! (certainly not, by Hercules !) 

Examples are : — 
quidnam? an laudationes? ita, why, what? is it eulogies? just so. 
aut etiam aut non respondere (Acad. ii. 104), to answer (categorically) yes or no. 
estne ut fertur forma? sane (Ter. Eun. 361), is she as handsome as they 

say she is? (is her beauty as it is said ?) oh ! yes. 
miser ergo Archelaus ? certe si iniustus (Tusc. v. 35), was Archelaus wretched 

then ? certainly, if he was unjust. 
an haec contemnitis ? minime (De Or. ii. 295), do you despise these things ? not 

at all. 
volucribusne et feiis? minime vero (Tusc. i. 104), to the birds and beasts? 

why, of course not. 
ex tul animi sententia tu uxorem habes ? n5n hercle, ex mei animi sententia 

(De Or. ii. 260), Lord! no, etc. 

337. In answering a double question, one member of the alterna- 
tive, or some part of it, must be repeated : — 

vldisti an de audito nuntias ? — egomet vldi (Plaut. Merc. 902), did you see 
it or are you repeating something you have heard ? — I saw it myself 



338] CONSTRUCTION OF CASES 209 



CONSTRUCTION OF CASES 

338. The Cases of nouns express their relations to other words in the sentence. 
The most primitive way of expressing such relations was by mere juxtaposition of unin- 
flected forms. From this arose in time composition, i.e. the growing together of stems, 
by means of which a complex expression arises with its parts mutually dependent. 
Thus such a complex as armi-gero- came to mean arm-bearing ; fidi-cen-, playing on the 
lyre. Later, Cases were formed by means of suffixes expressing more definitely such 
relations, and Syntax began. But the primitive method of composition still continues 
to hold an important place even in the most highly developed languages. 

Originally the Indo-European family of languages, to which Latin belongs, had at 
least seven case-forms, besides the Vocative. But in Latin the Locative and the Instru- 
mental were lost * except in a few words (where they remained without being recog- 
nized as cases), and their functions were divided among the other cases. 

The Nominative, Accusative, and Vocative express the simplest and perhaps the 
earliest case-relations. The Nominative is the case of the Subject, and generally ends 
in -s. The Vocative, usually without a termination, or like the Nominative (§ 38. a), 
perhaps never had a suffix of its own. 2 The Accusative, most frequently formed by the 
suffix -m, originally connected the noun loosely with the verb-idea, not necessarily 
expressed by a verb proper, but as well by a noun or an adjective (see § 386). 

The Genitive appears to have expressed a great variety of relations and to have 
had no single primitive meaning ; and the same may be true of the Dative. 

The other cases perhaps at first expressed relations of place or direction (to, from, 
at, with), though this is not clear in all instances. The 3arlier meanings, however, 
have become confused with each other, and in many instances the cases are no longer 
distinguishable in meaning or in form. Thus the Locative was for the most part lost 
from its confusion with the Dative and Ablative ; and its function was often performed 
by the Ablative, which is freely used to express the place where (§ 421). To indicate 
the case-relations — especially those of place — more precisely, Prepositions (originally 
adverbs) gradually came into use. The case-endings, thus losing something of their 
significance, were less distinctly pronounced as time went on (see § 36, phonetic decay), 
and prepositions have finally superseded them in the modern languages derived from 
Latin. But in Latin a large and various body of relations was still expressed by case- 
forms. It is to be noticed that in their literal use cases tended to adopt the preposition, 
and in their figurative uses to retain the old construction. (See Ablative of Separation, 
§§402-404; Ablative of Place and Time, §421 if.) 

The word casus, case, is a translation of the Greek ttt &<tis, a falling away (from the 
erect position) . The term tttChtis was originally applied to the Oblique Cases (§ 35. g) , 
to mark them as variations from the Nominative which was called opd-q, erect (casus 
rectus). The later name Nominative (casus nomindtlvus) is from nomino, and means 
the naming case. The other case-names (except Ablative) are of Greek origin. The 
name Genitive (casus genetivus) is a translation of yeviKrj [tttQctis], from ytvos (class), 
and refers to the class to which a thing belongs. Dative (casus dativus, from d5) is 
translated from donicr}, and means the case of giving. Accusative (accusdtivus, from 
accus5) is a mistranslation of ulnar ikt) (the case of causing), from atria, cause, and 
meant to the Romans the case of accusing. The name Vocative (vocdtivus, from voc5) 
is translated from kXtjtlk^ (the case of calling). The name Ablative (abldtivus, from 
ablatus, aufer5) means talcing from. This case the Greek had lost. 

1 Some of the endings, however, which in Latin are assigned to the dative and 
ablative are doubtless of locative or instrumental origin (see p. 34, footnote). 

2 The e- vocative of the second declension is a form of the stem (§ 45. c). 



210 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§339-341 

NOMINATIVE CASE 

339. The Subject of a finite verb is in the Nominative : — 
Caesar Rhenum transire decreverat (B. G. iv. 17), CcBsar had determined to 

cross the Rhine. 
For the omission of a pronominal subject, see § 295. a. 
a. The nominative may be used in exclamations : — 
en dextra fidesque (Aen. iv. 597), lo, the faith and plighted word ! 
ecce tuae litterae de Varrone (Att. xiii. 16), lo and behold, your letters about 
Varro ! 
Note. — But the accusative is more common (§ 397. d). 

VOCATIVE CASE 

340. The Vocative is the case of direct address : — 

Tiberine pater, te, sancte, precor (Liv. ii. 10), O father Tiber, thee, holy one, 

I pray. 
res omnis mihi tecum erit, Hortensi (Verr, i. 33), my whole attention will be 

devoted to you, Hortensius. 

a. A noun in the nominative in apposition with the subject of 
the imperative mood is sometimes used instead of the vocative : — 

audi tu, populus Albanus (Liv. i. 24), hear, thou people of Alba. 

b. The vocative of an adjective is sometimes used in poetry instead 
of the nominative, where the verb is in the second person : — 

qu5 moriture ruis (Aen. x. 811), whither art thou rushing to thy doom? 
censorern trabeate saltitas (Pers. iii. 29), robed you salute the censor. 

c. The vocative macte is used as a predicate in the phrase macte 
esto (virtute), success attend your (valor) : — 

iuberem te macte virtute esse (Liv. ii. 12), I should bid you go on and prosper 

in your valor. 
macte nova, virtute puer (Aen. ix. 641), success attend your valor, boy! 

Note. — As the original quantity of the final e in macte is not determinable, it may 
be that the word was an adverb, as in bene est and the like. 

GENITIVE CASE 

341. The Genitive is regularly used to express the relation of 
one noun to another. Hence it is sometimes called the adjective 
case, to distinguish it from the Dative and the Ablative, which 
may be called adverbial cases. 






§§341-343] POSSESSIVE GENITIVE 211 

The uses of the Genitive may be classified as follows : — 



1. Of Possession (§343). 

2. Of Material (§344). 

3. Of Quality (§ 345). 

4. Of the Whole, after words designating a Part 
(Partitive, §346). 

5. With Nouns of Action and Feeling (§ 348). 
f 1. After Relative Adjectives (or Verbals) (§ 349). 
{ 2. Of Specification (later use) (§ 349. d). 

III. Genitive with Verbs: { J" °f f mor ^ *<f*S,**- <§§ f>> f > 354)- 

V 2. Of Accusing, etc. (Charge or Penalty) (§ 352). 



I. Genitive with Nouns: 



II. Genitive with Adjectives: 



GENITIVE WITH NOUNS 

342. A noun used to limit or define another, and not meaning 
the same person or thing, is put in the Genitive. 

This relation is most frequently expressed in English by the prepo- 
sition of, sometimes by the English genitive (or possessive) case : — 

libri Ciceronis, the books of Cicero, or Cicero's books. 
inimlcl Caesaris, Ccesar's enemies, or the enemies of Ccesar. 
talentum auri, a talent of gold. 
vir summae virtutis, a man of the greatest courage. 

But observe the following equivalents : — 

vacatio laboris, a respite from toil. 

petitio cSnsulatus, candidacy for the consulship. 

regnum civitatis, royal power over the state. 

Possessive Genitive 

343. The Possessive Genitive denotes the person or thing to 
which an object, quality, feeling, or action belongs: — 

Alexandri canis, Alexander's dog. 

potentia Pompei (Sail. Cat. 19), Pompey's power. 

Ariovisti mors (B. G. v. 29), the death of Ariovistus. 

perditorum temeritas (Mil. 22), the recklessness of desperate men. 
Note 1. — The Possessive Genitive may denote (1) the actual owner (as in Alex- 
ander's dog) or author (as in Cicero's writings), or (2) the person or thing that possesses 
some feeling or quality or does some act (as in Cicero's eloquence, the strength of the 
bridge, Catiline's evil deeds). In the latter use it is sometimes called the Subjective 
Genitive ; but this term properly includes the possessive genitive and several other 
genitive constructions (nearly all, in fact, except the Objective Genitive, § 347). 
Note 2. — The noun limited is understood in a few expressions : — 

ad Castoris [aedes] (Quinct. 17), at the [temple] of Castor. [Cf. St. Paul's.] 

Flaccus Claudi, Flaccus [slave] of Claudius. 

Hectoris Andromache (Aen. iii. 319), Hector's [wife] Andromache. 



212 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§343 

a. For the genitive of possession a possessive or derivative adjec- 
tive is often used, — regularly for the possessive genitive of the per- 
sonal pronouns (§ 302. a) : — 

liber meus, my book. [Not liber mei.] 

aliena perlcula, other men's dangers. [But also aliorum.] 

Sullana tempora, the times of Sulla. [Oftener Sullae.] 

b. The possessive genitive often stands in the predicate, connected 
with its noun by a verb {Predicate Genitive) : — 

haec domus est patris mei, this house is my fathers. 

iam me Pompei totuni esse scls (Fam. ii. 13), you know I am now all for Pom- 

pey (all Pompey's). 
suinma laus et tua et Bruti est (Fain. xii. 4. 2), the highest praise is due both 

to you and to Brutus (is both yours and Brutus's). 
compendi facere, to save (make of saving). 
lucri facere, to get the benefit of (make of profit). 

Note. — These genitives bear the same relation to the examples in § 343 that a 
predicate noun bears to an appositive (§§ 282, 283). 

c. An infinitive or a clause, when used as a noun, is often limited 
by a genitive in the predicate : — 

neque sui iudici [erat] discernere (B. C. i. 35), nor was it for his judgment to 

decide (nor did it belong to his judgment). 
cuiusvls hominis est errare (Phil. xii. 5), it is any man's [liability] to err. 
negavit m5ris esse Graecorum, ut in convlvio virorum accumberent mulieres 

(Verr. ii. 1. 66), he said it was not the custom of the Greeks for women to 

appear as guests (recline) at the banquets of men. 
sed timid! est optare necem (Ov. M. iv. 115), but His the coward's part to 

wish for death. 
stulti erat sperare, suadere impudentis (Phil. ii. 23), it was folly (the part of 

a fool) to hope, effrontery to urge. 
sapientis est pauca loqm, it is wise (the part of a wise man) to say little. 
[Not sapiens (neuter) est, etc.] 

Note 1. — This construction is regular with adjectives of the third declension 
instead of the neuter nominative (see the last two examples). 

Note 2. — A derivative or possessive adjective may be used for the genitive in this 
construction, and must be used for the genitive of a personal pronoun: — 
mentin non est meum [not mei], it is not for me to lie. 
humanum [for hominis] est errare, it is man's nature to err (to err is human). 

d. A limiting genitive is sometimes used instead of a noun in appo- 
sition (Appositional Genitive) (§ 282) : 

nomen insaniae (for n5men insania), the ivord madness. 

oppidum Antiochiae (for oppidum Antiochia, the regular form), the city of 
Antioch. 



§§ 344-346] PARTITIVE GENITIVE 213 

Genitive of Material 

344. The Genitive may denote the Substance or Material of 
which a thing consists (cf. § 403): — 

talentum auri, a talent of gold. flumina lactis, rivers of milk. 

Genitive of Quality 

345. The Genitive is used to denote Quality, but only when 
the quality is modified by an adjective : — 

vir summae virtutis, a man of the highest courage. [But not vir virtutis.] 
magnae est deliberationis, it is an affair of great deliberation. 
magni formica laboris (Hor. S. i. 1. 33), the ant [a creature] of great toil. 
ille autem sui iudici (Nep. Att. 9), but he [a man] of independent (his own) 
judgment. 

Note. — Compare Ablative of Quality (§ 415) . In expressions of quality, the geni- 
tive or the ablative may often be used indifferently : as, praestanti prudentia vir, a 
man of surpassing wisdom; maximi animi homo, a man of the greatest courage. In 
classic prose, however, the genitive of quality is much less common than the abla- 
tive; it is practically confined to expressions of measure or number, to a phrase with 
eius, and to nouns modified by magnus, maximus, summus, or tantus. In general the 
Genitive is used rather of essential, the Ablative of special or incidental characteristics. 

a. The genitive of quality is found in the adjective phrases eius 
modi, cuius modi (equivalent to talis, such ; qualis, ofivhat sort): — 

eius modi sunt tempestates conseciitae, utl (B. G. iii. 29), such storms fol- 
lowed, that, etc. 

b. The genitive of quality, with numerals, is used to define meas- 
ures of length, depth, etc. (Genitive of Measure): — 

fossa trium pedum, a trench of three feet [in depth], 
murus sedecim pedum, a wall of sixteen feet [high]. 
For the Genitive of Quality used to express indefinite value, see § 417. 

Partitive Genitive 

346. Words denoting a Part are followed by the Genitive of 
the Whole to which the part belongs. 

a. Partitive words, followed by the genitive, are — 
1. Nouns or Pronouns (cf. also 3 below) : — 

pars militum, part of the soldiers, quis nostrum, which of us? 

nihil erat reliqui, there was nothing left. 

nemo eorum (B. G. vii. 66), not a man of them. 

magnam partem eorum interfecerunt (id. ii. 23), they killed a large part of them. 



214 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§346 

2. Numerals, Comparatives, Superlatives, and Pronominal words like 
alius, alter, nullus, etc.: — 

tinus tribunorum, one of the tribunes (see c below). 

sapientum octavus (Hor. S. ii. 3. 296), the eighth of the wise men. 

mllia passuum sescenta (B. G. iv. 3), six hundred miles (thousands of paces). 

maior fratrum, the elder of the brothers. 

animalium fortiora, the stronger [of] animals. 

Sueborum gens est longe maxima et bellicosissima Germanorum omnium 

(B. G. iv. 1), the tribe of the Suevi is far the largest and most warlike of 

all the Germans. 
alter consilium, one of the [two] consuls. 
nulla earum (B.G. iv. 28), not one of them (the ships). 

3. Neuter Adjectives and Pronouns, used as nouns : — 
tantum spati, so much [of] space. 

aliquid nummdrum, a few pence (something of coins). 

id loci (or locorum), that spot of ground; id temporis, at that time (§ 397. a). 

plana urbis, the level parts of the town. 

quid novi, what news? (what of new?) 

paulum frumenti (B. C. i. 78), a little grain. 

plus doldris (B. G. i. 20), more grief. 

sui aliquid timoris (B. C. ii. 29) , some fear of his own (something of his own fear) . 
Note 1. — In classic prose neuter adjectives (not pronominal) seldom take a parti- 
tive genitive, except multum, tantum, quantum, and similar words. 

Note 2. — The genitive of adjectives of the third declension is rarely used parti- 
tively : — nihil novi (genitive) , nothing new ; but, — nihil memorabile (nominative) , noth- 
ing worth mention (not nihil memorabilis) . 

4. Adverbs, especially those of Quantity and of Place : — 
parum oti, not much ease (too little of ease). 

satis pecuniae, money enough (enough of money). 

pltirimum totius Galliae equitatti valet (B. G. v. 3), is strongest of all Gaul 

in cavalry. 
ubinam gentium sumus (Cat. i. 9), where in the world are we (where of 

nations) ? 
ubicumque terrarum et gentium (Verr. v. 143), wherever in the whole world. 
res erat-eo iam loci ut (Sest. 68), the business had now reached such a point 

that, etc. 
eo miseriarum (lug. 14. 3), to that [pitch] of misery. 
inde loci, next in order (thence of place). [Poetical.] 

b. The poets and later writers often use the partitive genitive 
after adjectives, instead of a noun in its proper case : — 

sequimur te, sancte deorum (Aen. iv. 576), we follow thee, holy deity. [For 

sancte deus (§ 49. g. n.)] 
nigrae lanarum (Plin. H. N. viii. 193), black ivools. [For nigrae lanae.] 
expediti militum (Liv. xxx. 9), light-armed soldiers. [For expediti milites.] 
hominum cunctos (Ov. M. iv. 631), all men. [For cunctos homines ; cf. e.] 



§§346-348] OBJECTIVE GENITIVE 215 

c. Cardinal numerals (except milia) regularly take the Ablative 
with e (ex) or de instead of the Partitive Genitive. So also quidam, 
a certain one, commonly, and other words occasionally : — 

unus ex tribunis, one of the tribunes. [But also, tinus tribunorum (cf. a. 2).] 

minumus ex illis (lug. 11), the youngest of them. 

medius ex tribus (ib.), the middle one of the three. 

quidam ex militibus, certain of the soldiers. 

unus de multis (Fin. ii. 66), one of the many. 

pauci de nostris cadunt (B; G. i. 15), a few of our men fall. 

hominem de comitibus meis, a man of my companions. 

d. Uterque, both (properly each), and quisque, each, with Nouns 
are regularly used as adjectives in .. agreement, but with Pronouns 
take a partitive genitive : — 

uterque cSnsul, both the consuls; but, uterque nostrum, both of us. 
unus quisque vestrum, each one of you. 
utraque castra, both camps. 

e. Numbers and words of quantity including the whole of any 
thing take a case in agreement, and not the partitive genitive. So 
also words denoting a part when only that part is thought of : — 

nos omnes, all of us (we all). [Not omnes nostrum.] 

quot sunt hostes, how many of the enemy are there f 

cave inimicos, qui multi sunt, beware of your enemies, who are many. 

multl milites, many of the soldiers. 

nemo Rdmanus, not one Roman. 

Objective Genitive 

347. The Objective Genitive is used with Nouns, Adjectives, 
and Verbs. 

348. Nouns of action, agency, and feeling govern the Genitive 

of the Object : — 

caritas tui, affection for you. deslderium oti, longing for rest. 

vacatio muneris, relief from duty. gratia benefici, gratitude for kindness. 

f uga malorum, refuge from disaster. precatio deorum, prayer to the gods. 

contentio honSrum, struggle for office, opinio virtutis, reputation for valor. 

Note. — This usage is an extension of the idea of belonging to (Possessive Genitive). 
Thus in the phrase odium Caesaris, hate of Csesar, the hate in a passive sense belongs 
to Caesar, as odium, though in its active sense he is the object of it, as hate (cf. a). 
The distinction between the Possessive (subjective) and the Objective Genitive is very 
unstable and is often lost sight of. It is illustrated by the following example : the 
phrase amor patris, love of a father, may mean love felt by a father, a father's love 
(subjective genitive), or love towards a father (objective genitive). 



216 SYNTAX : CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§ 348, 349 

a. The objective genitive is sometimes replaced by a possessive 
pronoun or other derivative adjective : — 

mea invidia, my unpopularity (the dislike of which I am the object). [Cf. 

odium mei (Har. Resp. 5), hatred of me.] 
laudator meus (Att. i. 16. 5), my eulogist (one who praises me). [Cf. nostri 

laudator (id. i. 14. 6).] 
Clodianum crimen (Mil. 72), the murder of Clodius (the Clodian charge). [As 

we say, the Nathan murder.] 
metus hostllis (lug. 41), fear of the enemy (hostile fear), 
ea quae faciebat, tua se fiducia facere dicebat (Verr. v. 176), what he was 

doing, he said, he did relying on you (with your reliance), 
neque neglegentia tua, neque id odio fecit tu5 (Ter. Ph. 1016), he did this 

neither from neglect nor from hatred of you. 

b. Rarely the objective genitive is used with a noun already lim- 
ited by another genitive : — 

animl multarum rerum percursio (Tusc. iv. 31), the mind's traversing of many 
things. 

c. A noun with a preposition is often used instead of the objec- 
tive genitive : — 

odium in Antonium (Fam. x. 5. 3), hate of Antony. 

merita erga me (id. i. 1. 1), services to me. 

meam in te pietatem (id. i. 9. 1), my devotion to you. 

impetus in urbem (Phil. xii. 29), an attack on the city. 

excessus e vita (Fin. iii. 60), departure from life. [Also, excessus vitae, 

Tusc, i. 27.] 
adoptio in Domitium (Tac. Ann. xii. 25), the adoption of Domitius. [A late 

and bold extension of this construction.] 

Note. — So also in late writers the dative of reference (cf. § 366. b): as, — longo 
bello materia (Tac. H. i. 89), resources for a long war. 

GENITIVE WITH ADJECTIVES 

349. Adjectives requiring an object of reference govern the 
Objective Genitive. 

a. Adjectives denoting desire, knowledge, memory, fulness, power, 
sharing, guilt, and their opposites govern the genitive : — 
avidl laudis (Manil. 7), greedy of praise. 
fastidiosus litterarum, disdaining letters. 

iuris peritus, skilled in law. [So also the ablative, iure, cf. § 418.] 
memorem vestri, oblltum sui (Cat. iv. 19), mindful of you, forgetful of himself. 
rationis et orationis expertes (Off. i. 50), devoid of sense and speech. 
nostrae cdnsuetudinis imperiti (B.G. iv. 22), unacquainted with our customs. 



§ 349] GENITIVE WITH ADJECTIVES 217 

plenus fidei, full of good faith. 

onmis spei egenam (Tac. Ann. i. 53), destitute of all hope. 
tempestatum potentem (Aen. i. 80), having sway over the storms. 
impotens irae (Liv. xxix. 9. 9), ungovernable in anger. 
coniiiratidnis participes (Cat. iii. 14), sharing in the conspiracy. 
affinis rei capitalis (Verr. ii. 2. 94), involved in a capital crime. 
insons culpae (Liv. xxii. 49), innocent of guilt. 

b. Participles in -ns govern the genitive when they are used as 
adjectives, i.e. when they denote a constant disposition and not a 
particular act : — 

si quern tui amantiorem cognovisti (Q. Fr. i. 1. 15), if you have become 

acquainted with any one more fond of you. 
multitudo Insolens belli (B. C. ii. 36), a crowd unused to war. 
erat Iugurtha appetens gloriae militaris (lug. 7), Jugurtha was eager for mili- 
tary glory. 
Note 1. — Participles in -ns, when used as participles, take the case regularly gov- 
erned by the verb to which they belong: as, — Sp. Maelium regnum appetentem inter- 
emit (Cat. M. 56), he put to death Spurius Mselius, who was aspiring to royal power. 
Note 2. — Occasionally participial forms in -ns are treated as participles (see note 1) 
even when they express a disposition or character: as, — virtus quani alii ipsam tem- 
perantiam dicuut esse, alii obtemperantem temperantiae praeceptis et earn subsequen- 
tem (Tusc. iv. 30), observant of the teachings of temperance and obedient to her. 

c. Verbals in -ax (§ 251) govern the genitive in poetry and later 
Latin : — 

iustum et tenacem propositi virum (Hor. Od. iii. 3), a man just and steadfast 

to his purpose. 
circus capaxpopuli (Ov. A. A. i. 136), a circus big enough to hold the people. 
cibl vinique capacissimus (Liv. ix. 16. 13), a very great eater and drinker 

(very able to contain food and wine). 

d. The poets and later writers use the genitive with almost any 
adjective, to denote that with reference to which the quality exists 
(Genitive of SjJeciftcation) : — 

callidus rei militaris (Tac. H. ii. 32), skilled in soldiership. 
pauper aquae (Hor. Od. iii. 30. 11), scant of waiter. 
notus animi paterni (id. ii. 2. 6), famed for a paternal spirit. 
fessi rerum (Aen. i. 178), weary of toil. 

integer vitae scelerisque purus (Hor. Od. i. 22. 1), upright in life, and unstained 

by guilt. 

Note. — The Genitive of Specification is only an extension of the construction with 

adjectives requiring an object of reference (§ 349). Thus callidus denotes knowledge ; 

pauper, want ; purus, innocence ; and so these words in a manner belong to the classes 

under a. 

For the Ablative of Specification, the prose construction, see § 418. For Adjectives 
of likeness etc. with the Genitive, apparently Objective, see § 385. c. For Adjectives 
with aninn (locative in origin), see § 358. 



218 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§350 

GENITIVE WITH VERBS 

Verbs of Remembering and Forgetting 

350. Verbs of remembering and forgetting take either the Accu- 
sative or the Genitive of the object : — 

a. Memini takes the Accusative when it has the literal sense of 
retaining in the mind what one has seen, heard, or learned. Hence 
the accusative is used of persons whom one remembers as acquaint- 
ances, or of things which one has experienced. 

So obliviscor in the opposite sense, — to forget literally, to lose all 
memory of a thing (very rarely, of a person). 
Cinnam memini (Phil. v. 17), I remember Cinna. 
utinam avum tuum meminisses (id. i. 34), oh! that you could remember your 

grandfather! (but he died before you were born). 
Postumium, cuius statuam in Isthmo meminisse te dicis (Att. xiii. 32), Postu- 

mius, whose statue you say you remember (to have seen) on the Isthmus. 
omnia meminit SIron Epicuri dogmata (Acad. ii. 106), Sir on remembers all 

the doctrines of Epicurus. 
multa ab aliis audita meminerunt (De Or. ii. 355), they remember many things 

that they have heard from others. 
totam causam oblitus est (Brut. 217), he forgot the whole case. 
hinc iam obllvlscere Grai5s (Aen. ii. 148), from henceforth forget the Greeks 

(i.e. not merely disregard them, but banish them from your mind, as if 

you had never known them). 

b. Memini takes the Genitive when it means to be mindful or 
regardful of a person or thing, to think of somebody or something 
(often with special interest or warmth of feeling). 

So obliviscor in the opposite sense, — to disregard, or dismiss from 
the mind, — and the adjective oblitus, careless or regardless. 

ipse sui meminerat (Verr. ii. 136), he was mindful of himself (of his own 

interests). 
faciam ut huius loci dieique meique semper memineris (Ter. Eun. 801), I will 

make you remember this place and this day and me as long as you live. 
nee me meminisse pigebit Elissae, dum memor ipse mei (Aen. iv. 335), nor 

shall I feel regret at the thought of Elissa, so long as I remember myself. 
meminerint verecundiae (Off. i. 122), let them cherish modesty. 
hiimanae infirmitatis memini (Liv. xxx. 31. 6), I remember human weakness. 
obllvlsci temporum meorum, meminisse actionum (Fam. i. 9. 8), to disregard 

my own interests, to be mindful of the matters at issue. 
nee tamen Epicuri licet obllvlsci (Fin. v. 3), and yet I must not forget Epicurus. 
obllvlscere caedis atque incendiorum (Cat. i. 6), turn your mind from slaughter 

and conflagrations (dismiss them from your thoughts). 



§§ 350, 351] GENITIVE WITH VERBS 219 

Note 1. — With both memini and obliviscor the personal and reflexive pronouns are 
regularly in the Genitive ; neuter pronouns and adjectives used substantively are regu- 
larly in the Accusative ; abstract nouns are often in the Genitive. These uses come 
in each instance from the natural meaning of the verbs (as defined above) . 

Note 2. — Memini in the sense of mention takes the Genitive : as, — eundem Achil- 
lam cuius supra meminimus (B. C. iii. 108), that same Achillas whom I mentioned 
above. 

c. Reminiscor is rare. It takes the Accusative in the literal sense 
of call to mind, recollect ; the Genitive in the more figurative sense 
of be mindful of: — 

dulcis moriens reminlscitur Argos (Aen. x. 782), as he dies he calls to mind 

his beloved Argos. 
reminisceretur et veteris incommodi populi Roman! et pristinae virtutis Helve- 

tiorum (B. G. i. 13), let him remember both the former discomfiture of the 

Roman people and the ancient valor of the Helvetians. [A warning, — 

let him bear it in mind (and beware) ! ] 

d. Recorder, recollect, recall, regularly takes the Accusative : — 
recordare consensum ilium theatri (Phil. i. 30), recall that unanimous agree- 
ment of the [audience in the] theatre. 

recordamini onmls civllls dissensiones (Cat. iii. 24), call to mind all the civil 
wars. 

Note. — Recordor takes the genitive once (Pison. 12) ; it is never used with a per- 
sonal object, but may be followed by de with the ablative of the person or thing 
(cf. §351. n.): — 

de te recordor (Scaur. 49), i" remember about you. 

de illis (lacriinis) recordor (Plane. 104), I am reminded of those tears. 

Verbs of Reminding 

351. Verbs of reminding take with the Accusative of the per- 
son a Genitive of the thing ; except in the case of a neuter pro- 
noun, which is put in the accusative (cf. § 390. c). 

So admoneo, commoneo, commonefacio, commonefio. But moneo with 
the genitive is found in late writers only. 

Catillna admonebat alium egestatis, alium cupiditatis suae (Sail. Cat. 21), 

Catiline reminded one of his poverty, another of his cupidity. 
eos hoc moneo (Cat. ii. 20), I give them this warning. 
quod v5s lex commonet (Verr. iii. 40), that which the law reminds you of. 

Note. — All these verbs often take de with the ablative, and the accusative of nouns 
as well as of pronouns is sometimes used with them : — 

saepius te admoneo de syngrapha Sittiana (Fam. viii. 4. 5) I remind you again and 

again of Sittius J s bond. 
officium vostrum ut vos malo cogatis commonerier (Plaut. Ps. 150), that you may 
by misfortune force yourselves to be reminded of your duty. 



220 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§352,353 

Verbs of Accusing, Condemning, and Acquitting 

352. Verbs of accusing, condemning, and acquitting, take the 

Genitive of the Charge or Penalty : — 

arguit me furti, he accuses me of theft. 

peculatus damnatus (pecuniae publicae damnatus) (Flacc. 43), condemned for 

embezzlement. 
video non te absohitum esse improbitatis, sed illos damnatos esse caedis 

(Verr. ii. 1. 72), I see, not that you were acquitted of outrage, but that 

they were condemned for homicide. 

a. Peculiar genitives, under this construction, are — 

capitis, as in damnare capitis, to sentence to death. 
maiestatis [laesae], treason (crime against the dignity of the state), 
repetundarum [rerum], extortion (lit. of an action for reclaiming money). 
v5ti damnatus (or reus), bound [to the payment] of one's vow, i.e. success- 
ful in one's effort, 
pecuniae (damnare, iudicare, see note). 
dupli etc. , as in dupli condemnare, condemn to pay tivofold. 

Note. — The origin of these genitive constructions is pointed at by pecuniae dam- 
nare (Gell. xx. 1. 38), to condemn to pay money, in a case of injury to the person; 
quantae pecuniae iudicati essent (id.xx. lAl),hoiv much money they were adjudged to pay, 
in a mere suit for debt; confess! aeris ac debit! iudicati (id. xx. 1. 42), adjudged to oice 
an admitted sum due. These expressions show that the genitive of the penalty comes 
from the use of the genitive of value to express a sum of money due either as a debt or as 
a fine. Since in early civilizations all offences could be compounded by the payment of 
fines, the genitive came to be used of other punishments, not pecuniary. From this to 
the genitive of the actual crime is an easy transition, inasmuch as there is always a 
confusion between crime and penalty (cf . Eng. guilty of death) . It is quite unnecessary 
to assume an ellipsis of crimine or iudicid. 

353. Other constructions for the Charge or Penalty are — 

1. The Ablative of Price : regularly of a definite amount of fine, 
and often of indefinite penalties (cf. § 416) : — 

Frusinates tertia parte agrl danmati (Li v. x. 1), the people of Frusino con- 
demned [to forfeit] a third part of their land. 

2. The Ablative with de, or the Accusative with inter, in idiomatic 
expressions : — 

de alea, for gambling ; de ambitu, for bribery. 

de pecunils repetundis, of extortion (cf. § 352. a). 

inter sicarios (Rose. Am. 90), as an assassin (among the assassins). 

de vi et maiestatis damnati (Phil. i. 21), convicted of assault and treason. 

Note. — The accusative with ad and in occurs in later writers to express the pen- 
alty: as, — ad mortem (Tac. Ann. xvi. 21), to death; ad (in) metalla, to the mines. 



§§ 354, 355] GENITIVE WITH VERBS 221 

Verbs of Feeling 

354. Many verbs of feeling take the Genitive of the object 
which excites the feeling. 

a. Verbs of pity, as misereor and miseresco, take the genitive : — 
misereminl familiae, indices, misereminl patris, misereminl fill (Flacc. 106), 

have pity on the family, etc. 
miserere animi non dlgna ferentis (Aen. ii. 144), pity a soul that endures 

unworthy things. 
miserescite regis (id. viii. 573), pity the king. [Poetical.] 
Note. — But miseror, commiseror, bewail, take the accusative: as, — - communem 
condicionem miserari (Mur. 55), bewail the common lot. 

b. As impersonals, miseret, paenitet, piget, pudet, taedet (or pertaesum 

est), take the genitive of the cause of the feeling and the accusative 
of the person affected : — 

quos infamiae suae neque pudet neque taedet (Verr. i. 35), who are neither 

ashamed nor weary of their dishonor. 
me ruiseret parietum ipsorurn (Phil. ii. 69), I pity the very walls. 
me civitatis morum piget taedetque (lug. 4), I am sick and tired of the way: 

of the state. 
decemvir5rum v5s pertaesum est (Liv. iii. 67), you became tired of the decemvtrs 

c. With miseret, paenitet, etc., the cause of the feeling may be ex 
pressed by an infinitive or a clause : — 

neque me paenitet mortalis inimicitias habere (Rab. Post. 32), nor am I sorry 

to have deadly enmities. 
non dedisse is tunc pudet ; me quia non accepi piget (PI. Pseud. 282), he is 
ashamed not to have given; I am sorry because I have not received. 
Note. — Miseret etc. are sometimes used personally with a neuter pronoun as sub- 
ject: as, — non te haec pudent (Ter. Ad. 754), do not these things shame you? 

Interest and Refert 

355. The impersonals interest and refert take the Genitive of 
the person (rarely of the thing) affected. 

The subject of the verb is a neuter pronoun or a substantive 
clause : — 

Clddi intererat Milonem perire (cf. Mil. 56), it was the interest of Clodius that 

Milo should die. 
aliquid quod illorum magis quam sua retulisse videretur (lug. Ill), something 

which seemed to be more for their interest than his own. 
video enim quid mea intersit, quid utriusque nostrum (Fam. vii. 23. 4), for I 
see what is for my good and for the good of us both. 



222 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§355,356 

a. Instead of the genitive of a personal pronoun the correspond- 
ing possessive is used in the ablative singular feminine after interest 
or refert : — 

quid tua id ref ert? magnl (Ter. Ph. 723), how does that concern you? much. 

[See also the last two examples above.] 
vehenienter intererat vestra qui patres estis (Plin. Ep. iv. 13. 4), it would be 
very much to your advantage, you who are fathers. 
Note. — This is the only construction with refert in classic prose, except in one 
passage in Sallust (see example above). 

b. The accusative with ad is used with interest and refert to ex- 
press the thing with reference to which one is interested : — 

magnl ad honorem nostrum interest (Earn. xvi. 1), it is of great consequence 

to our honor. 
refert etiam ad fructus (Varr. R. R. i. 16. 6), it makes a difference as to the crop. 

Note 1. — Very rarely the person is expressed by ad and the accusative, or (with 
refert) by the dative (probably a popular corruption) : — 

quid id ad me aut ad meam rem refert (PL Pers. 513), what difference does that 

make to me or to my interests ? 
quid referat intra naturae finis viventi (Hor. S. i. 1. 49), what difference does it 

make to me loho live within the limits of natural desire ? 
non referre dedecori (Tac, Ann. xv. 65), that it makes no difference as to the 
disgrace. 
Note 2. — The degree of interest is expressed by a genitive of value, an adverb, 
or an adverbial accusative. 

Verbs of Plenty and Want 

356. Verbs of Plenty and Want sometimes govern the geni- 
tive (cf . § 409. a. N.) : — 

convlvium vicmorum compleo (Cat. M. 46, in the mouth of Cato), I Jill up the 
banquet with my neighbors. 

implentur yeteris Bacchi pinguisque ferinae (Aen. i. 215), they fill themselves 
with old wine and fat venison. 

ne quis auxin* egeat (B. G. vi. 11), lest any require aid. 

quid est quod defensidnis indigeat (Rose. Am. 34), what is there that needs 
defence f 

quae ad consolandum maioris ingeni et ad ferendum singularis virtutis indi- 
gent (Fam. vi. 4. 2), [sorrows] which for their comforting need more abil- 
ity, and for endurance unusual courage. 

Note. — Verbs of plenty and want more commonly take the ablative (see §§ 409. a, 
401), except egeo, which takes either case, and indigeo. But the genitive is by a Greek 
idiom often used in poetry instead of the ablative with all words denoting separation 
and want (cf . § 357. 6. 3): — 

abstineto Irarum (Hor. Od, iii. 27. 69), refrain from wrath. 

operum soliitis (id. iii. 17. 16), free from toils. 

desine mollium querellarum (id. ii. 9. 17), have done with weak complaints. 



§§357-359] PECULIAR GENITIVES 223 

Genitive with Special Verbs 

357. The Genitive is used with certain special verbs. 

a. The genitive sometimes follows potior, get possession of; as 
always in the phrase potiri rerum, to be master of affairs : — 

illlus regni potiri (Earn. i. 7. 5), to become master of that kingdom. 
Cleanthes solem dominarl et rerum potiri putat (Acad. ii. 126), Cleanthes 
thinks the sun holds sway and is lord of the universe. 
Note. — But potior usually takes the ablative (see § 410). 

b. Some other verbs rarely take the genitive — 

1. By analogy with those mentioned in § 354: — 

neque huius sis veritus feminae prlmariae (Ter. Ph. 971), and you had no 
respect for this high-born lady. 

2. As akin to adjectives which take the genitive : — 
fastldit mei (Plaut. Aul. 245), he disdains me. [Cf. fastldiosus.] 
studet tui (quoted N. D. iii. 72), he is zealous for you. [Cf. studiosus.] 

3. In imitation of the Greek: — 

iustitiaene prius mlrer, belllne labSrum (Aen. xi. 126), shall I rather admire 

his justice or his toils in war? 
neque ille sepositi ciceris nee longae invldit avenae (Hor. S. ii. 6. 84), nor did 

he grudge his garnered peas, etc. [But cf. invidus, parous.] 
labSrum decipitur (Hor. Od. ii. 13. 38), he is beguiled of his woes. 
me labSrum levas (PL Rud. 247), you relieve me of my troubles. 

358. The apparent Genitive animi (really Locative) is used with 

a few verbs and adjectives of feeling and the like: — 

Antipho me excruciat animi (Ter. Ph. 187), Antipho tortures my mind (me in 

my mind), 
qui pendet animi (Tusc. iv. 35), who is in suspense. 
me animi fallit (Lucr. i. 922), my mind deceives me. 

So, by analogy, desipiebam mentis (PI. Epid. 138), I was out of my head. 
aeger animi, sick at heart; conftisus animi, disturbed in spirit. 
sanus mentis aut animi (PI. Trin. 454), sound in mind or heart. 

PECULIAR GENITIVES 

359. Peculiar Genitive constructions are the following : — 

a. A poetical genitive occurs rarely in exclamations, in imitation 
of the Greek (Genitive of Exclamation) : — 

di immortales, mercimoni lepidl (PI. Most. 912), good heavens! what a charm- 
ing bargain ! 
foederis heu tacitl (Prop. iv. 7. 21), alas for the unspoken agreement! 



224 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§359,360 

b. The genitive is often used with the ablatives causa, gratia, for 
the sake of; ergo, because of; and the indeclinable instar, like; also 
with pridie, the day before; postridie, the day after; tenus, as far as: 
honoris causa, with due respect (for the sake of honor). 
verb! gratia, for example. 
eius legis ergo, on account of this law. 
equus instar montis (Aen. ii. 15), a horse huge as a mountain (the image of 

a mountain), 
laterum tenus (id. x. 210), as far as the sides. 
Note 1. — Of these the genitive with causa is a development from the possessive 
genitive and resembles that in nomen Insaniae (§ 343. d) . The others are of various origin. 
Note 2. — In prose of the Republican Period pridie and postridie are thus used only 
in the expressions pridie (postridie) eius diei, the day before {after) that (cf . " the eve, the 
morrow of that day ' ') . Tacitus uses the construction with other words : as, — postridie 
insidiarum, the day after the plot. For the accusative, see § 432. a. Tenus takes also 
the ablative (p. 136). 

DATIVE CASE 

360. The Dative is probably, like the Genitive, a grammatical case, that is, it is 
a form appropriated to the expression of a variety of relations other than that of the 
direct object. But it is held by some to be a Locative with the primary meaning of 
to or towards, and the poetic uses (like it clamor caelo, Aen. v. 451) are regarded as 
survivals of the original use. 

In Latin the Dative has two classes of meanings : — 

1. The Dative denotes an object not as caused by the action, or directly affected by 
it (like the Accusative), but as reciprocally sharing in the action or receiving it con- 
sciously or actively. Thus in dedit puero librum, he gave the boy a book, or fecit mini 
iniuriam, he did me a wrong, there is an idea of the boy's receiving the book, and of my 
feeling the wrong. Hence expressions denoting persons, or things with personal 
attributes, are more likely to be in the dative than those denoting mere things. So 
in Spanish the dative is used whenever a person is the object of an action; yo veo al 
hombre, I see [to] the man. This difference between the Accusative and the Dative 
(i.e. between the Direct and the Indirect Object) depends upon the point of view implied 
•in the verb or existing in the mind of the writer. Hence Latin verbs of similar meaning 
(to an English mind) often differ in the case of their object (see § 367. a). 

2. The Dative is used to express the purpose of an action or that for which it serves 
(see § 382). This construction is especially used with abstract expressions, or those 
implying an action. 

These two classes of Datives approach each other in some cases and are occasion- 
ally confounded, as in §§ 383, 384. 

The uses of the Dative are the following : — 

1. Indirect Object (general ( 1. With Transitives (§ 362). 

use): 1 2. With Intransitives (§§ 366-372). 

f 1. Of Possession (with esse) (§ 373). 

| 2. Of Agency (with Gerundive) (§ 374). 

2. Special or Idiomatic Uses : <! 3. Of Reference (dativus commodi) (§§ 376-381). 

J 4. Of Purpose or End (predicate use) (§ 382). 
L 5. Of Fitness etc. (with Adjectives) (§§ 383, 384). 



§§ 361-363] DATIVE OF INDIRECT OBJECT 225 

INDIRECT OBJECT 

361. The Dative is used to denote the object indirectly affected 
by an action. 

This is called the Indirect Object (§ 274). It is usually denoted 
in English by the objective with to : — 

cedite tempori, yield to the occasion. 

provincia Ciceroni obtigit, the province fell by lot to Cicero. 

inimicis non credimus, we do not trust [to] our enemies. 

Indirect Object with Transitives 

362. The Dative of the Indirect Object with the Accusative 
of the Direct may be used with any transitive verb whose mean- 
ing allows (see § 274) : — 

do tibi librum, I give you a book. 

illud tibi affirm 5 (Fam. i. 7. 5), this I assure you. 

conimendo tibi eius omnia negotia (id. i. 3), I put all his affairs in your hands 

(commit them to you), 
dabis profecto misericordiae quod iracundiae negavistl (Deiot. 40), you will 

surely grant to mercy what you refused to wrath. 
litteras a te mihi stator tuus reddidit (Fam. ii. 17), your messenger delivered 

to me a letter from you. 

a. Many verbs have both a transitive and an intransitive use, and 
take either the Accusative with the Dative, or the Dative alone : — 

mihi id aurum credidit (cf. Plaut. Aul. 15), he trusted that gold to me. 
equ5 ne credite (Aen. ii. 48), put not your trust in the horse. 
concessit senatus postulationi tuae (Mur. 47), the senate yielded to your demand. 
concedere amicis quidquid velint (Lael. 38), to grant to friends all they may 
wish. 

363. Certain verbs implying motion vary in their construction 
between the Dative of the Indirect Object and the Accusative 
of the End of Motion (§§ 426, 427): — 

1. Some verbs implying motion take the Accusative (usually with 
ad or in) instead of the Indirect Object, when the idea of motion pre- 
vails : — 

litteras quas ad Pompeium scrlpsl (Att. iii. 8. 4), the letter which I have written 
[and sent] to Pompey. [Cf. non quo haberem quod tibi scrlberem (id. 
iv. 4a), not that I had anything to write to you.] 



226 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§363,364 

litterae extempl5 R5mam scrlptae (Liv. xli. 16), a letter was immediately written 

[and sent] to Rome. 
hostls in fugam dat (B. G. v. 51), he puts the enemy to flight. [Cf. ut me dem 

fugae (Att. vii. 23), to take to flight.] 
omnes rem ad Pompeium deferri volunt (Fam. i. 1), all wish the matter to be 

put in the hands of Pompey (referred to Pompey). 

2. On the other hand, many verbs of motion usually followed by 
the Accusative with ad or in, take the Dative when the idea of motion 
is merged in some other idea : — 

mihi litteras mittere (Fam. vii. 12), to send me a letter. 
eum librum tibi misl (id. vii. 19), I sent you that book. 
nee quicquam quod non mihi Caesar detulerit (id. iv. 13), and nothing which 

Coesar did not communicate to me. 
cures ut mihi vehantur (id. viii. 4. 5), take care that they be conveyed to me. 
cum alius alii subsidium ferrent (B. G. ii. 26), while one lent aid to another. 

364. Certain verbs may take either the Dative of the person and 

the Accusative of the thing, or (in a different sense) the Accusative 

of the person and the Ablative of the thing a : — 

dSnat coronas suis, he presents wreaths to his men; or, 

donat su5s corSnis, he presents his men with wreaths. 

vincula exuere sibi (Ov. M. vii. 772), to shake off the leash (from himself). 

omnis armis exuit (B. G. v. 51), he stripped them all of their arms. 

Note 1. — Interdico,/or&£c?, takes either (1) the Dative of the person and the Abla- 
tive of the thing, or (2) in later writers, the Dative of the person and the Accusative of 
the thing : — 

aqua et igni alicui interdicere, to forbid one the use of fire and water. [The regular 

formula for banishment.] 
interdixit histrionibus scaenam (Suet. Dom. 7), he forbade the actors [to appear on] 

the stage (he prohibited the stage to the actors) . 
feminis (dat.) purpurae usu interdicemus (Liv. xxxiv. 7), shall we forbid women 
the wearing of purple ? 
Note 2. — The Dative with the Accusative is used in poetry with many verbs of 
preventing, protecting, and the like, which usually take the Accusative and Ablative. 
Intercludo and prohibeo sometimes take the Dative and Accusative, even in prose : — 
hisce omnis aditus ad Sullam intercludere (Rose. Am. 110), to shut these men off 
from all access to Sulla (close to them every approach) . [Cf . uti commeatu 
Caesarem intercluderet (B. G. i. 48), to shut Csesar off from supplies.] 
hunc (oestrum) arcebis pecori (Georg. iii. 154), you shall keep this away from the 

flock. [Cf . ilium arcuit Gallia (Phil. v. 37), he excluded him from Gaul.] 
solstitium pecori defendite (Eel. vii. 47) , keep the summer heat from the flock. [Cf . 
uti se a contumeliis inimicorum defenderet (B. C. i. 22), to defend himself 
from the slanders of his enemies.] 

1 Such are dono, impertio, induo, exuo, adspergo, inspergd, circumdo, and in poetry 
accingo, implied, and similar verbs. 



§§ 365, 366] DATIVE OF INDIRECT OBJECT 227 

365. Verbs which in the active voice take the Accusative and 
Dative retain the Dative when used in the passive : — 

nuntiabantur haec eadem Curioni (B. C. ii. 37), these same things were 
announced to Curio. [Active : nuntiabant (quidam) haec eadem Curioni.] 

nee docendl Caesaris propinquis eius spatiuin datur, nee tribunis plebis sul 
periculi deprecandi facultas tribuitur (id. i. 5), no time is given Caesar's 
relatives to inform him, and no opportunity is granted to the tribunes of 
the plebs to avert danger from themselves. 

provinciae prlvatis decernuntur (id. i. 6), provinces are voted to private 
citizens. 

Indirect Object with Intransitives 

366. The Dative of the Indirect Object may be used with any- 
Intransitive verb whose meaning allows : — 

cedant arma togae (Phil. ii. 20), let arms give place to the gown. 

Caesari respondet, he replies to Cossar. 

Caesari respondetur , a reply is given to Ccesar (Caesar is replied to) . [Cf . § 372 . ] 

respond! maxirnls criminibus (Phil. ii. 36), I have answered the heaviest charges. 

nt ita cuique eveniat (id. ii. 119), that it may so turn out to each. 
Note 1. — Intransitive verbs have no Direct Object. The Indirect Object, there- 
fore, in these cases stands alone as in the second example (but cf. § 362. a). 

Note 2. — Ced5, yield, sometimes takes the Ablative of the thing along with the 
Dative of the person : as, — cedere alicui possessione hortorum (cf . Mil. 75), to give up to 
one the possession of a garden. 

a. Many phrases consisting of a noun with the copula sum or a 
copulative verb are equivalent to an intransitive verb and take a 
kind of indirect object (cf. § 367. a. n. 2 ): — 

auctor esse alicui, to advise or instigate one (cf. persuadeo). 

quis huic rei testis est (Quinct. 37), who testifies (is witness) to this fact? 

is finis populationibus fuit (Liv. ii. 30. 9), this put an end to the raids. 

b. The dative is sometimes used without a copulative verb in a 
sense approaching that of the genitive (cf. §§ 367. d, 377) : — 

legatus fratri (Mur. 32), a lieutenant to his brother (i.e. a man assigned to his 

brother), 
ministri sceleribus (Tac. Ann. vi. 36), agents of crime. [Cf. seditiSnis minis- 

tri (id. i. 17), agents of sedition.] 
miseriis suis remedium mortem exspectare (Sail. Cat. 40), to look for death 
as a cure for their miseries. [Cf. s5lus mearum miseriarumst remedium 
(Ter. Ad. 294).] 
Note. — The cases in a and b differ from the constructions of § 367. a. n. 2 and 
§ 377 in that the dative is more closely connected in idea with some single word to 
which it serves as an indirect object. 



228 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§367 

Indirect Object with Special Verbs 

367. Many verbs signifying to favor, help, please, trust, and 

their contraries ; also to believe, persuade, command, obey, serve, 

resist, envy, threaten, pardon, and spare, 1 take the Dative : — 

ctir mihi invides, why do you envy me f 

mihi parcit atque ignoseit, he spares and pardons me. 

Ign5sce patrio doldri (Li v. iii. 48), excuse a father's grief. 

subvenl patriae, opitulare conlegae (Fam. x. 10- 2), come to the aid of your 

country, help your colleague. 
mihi nSn displicet (Clu. 144), it does not displease me. 
non omnibus servio (Att. xiii. 49), I am not a servant to every man. 
non parcam operae (Fam. xiii. 27), I will spare no pains. 
sic mihi persuasi (Cat. M. 78), so I have persuaded myself. 
mihi Fabius debebit ignoscere si minus eius famae parcere videbor quam antea 

consului (Tull. 3), Fabius will have to pardon me if I seem to spare his 

reputation less than I have heretofore regarded it. 
huic legiSni Caesar confldebat maxime (B. G. i. 40. 15), in this legion Ccesar 

trusted most 

In these verbs the Latin retains an original intransitive meaning. 
Thus : invidere, to envy, is literally to look askance at ; servire is to be 
a slave to ; suadere is to make a thing pleasant (sweet) to. 

a. Some verbs apparently of the same meanings take the Accusative. 

Such are iuv5, adiuvo, help; laedo, injure; iubed, order; deficio, fail; 
delecto, please : — 

hie pulvis oculum meum laedit, this dust hurts my eye. [Cf. multa oculis 
nocent, many things are injurious to the eyes. ] 

Note 1. — Fido and confid5 take also the Ablative (§ 431) : as, — multum natura loci 
confidebant (B. G. iii. 9), they had great confidence in the strength of their position. 

Note 2. — Some common phrases regularly take the dative precisely like verbs of 
similar meaning. Such are— -praesto esse, be on hand (cf. adesse) ; morem gerere, 
humor (cf. morigerari) ; gratum facere, do a favor (cf. gratificari) ; dicto audiens esse, 
be obedient (cf. oboedire) ; cui fidem habebat (B. G. i. 19), in whom he had confidence 
(cf. cSnfidebat). 

So also many phrases where no corresponding verb exists. Such are — bene (male, 
pulchre, aegre, etc.) esse, be well\ill, etc.) off; iniuriam facere, do injustice to ; diem 
dicere, bring to trial (name a day for, etc.); agere gratias, express one's thanks; 
habere gratiam, feel thankful; referre gratiam, repay a favor; opus esse, be neces- 
sary ; damnum dare, inflict an injury; acceptum (expensum) ferre (esse), credit 
{charge); honorem habere, to pay honor to. 

1 These include, among others, the following: adversor, ced5, credo, faveo, fido, 
ignosco, impero, indulged, invideo, irascor, minitor, noceo, parco, pareo, placeo, resisto, 
servid, studeS, suadeo (persuadeo), suscenseo, tempero (obtempero). 



§§ 367, 368] DATIVE WITH SPECIAL VERBS 229 

b. Some verbs are used transitively with the Accusative or intran- 
sitively with the Dative without perceptible difference of meaning. 

Such are adulor, aemulor, despero, praestolor, medeor : — 

adulatus est Antdnid (Nep. Att. 8), he flattered Antony, 

adularl Neronem (Tac. Ann. xvi. 19), to flatter Nero. 

pacem non desperas (Att. viii. 15. 3), you do not despair of peace. 

saluti desperare vetuit (Clu. 68), he forbade him to despair of safety. 

c. Some verbs are used transitively with the Accusative or intran- 
sitively with the Dative with a difference of meaning : — * 

parti civium consulunt (Off. i. 85), they consult for a part of the citizens. 
cum te consuluissem (Fam. xi. 29), when I had consulted you. 
metuens pueris (Plaut. Am. 1113), anxious for the children. 
nee metuunt deos (Ter. Hec. 772), they fear not even the gods. [So also timed.] 
prospicite patriae (Cat. iv. 3), have regard for the state. 
prospicere sedem senectuti (Liv. iv. 49. 14), to provide a habitation for old age. 
[So also provided.] 

d. A few verbal nouns (as insidiae, ambush; obtemperatiS, obedi- 
ence) rarely take the dative like the corresponding verbs : — 

Insidiae consul! (Sail. Cat. 32), the plot against the consul (cf. insidior). 
obtemperatio legibus (Legg. i. 42), obedience to the laws (ef. obtemperd). 
sibi ipsi responsio (De Or. iii. 207), an answer to himself (cf. responded) . 

Note. — In these cases the dative depends immediately upon the verbal foree of the 
noun and not on any complex idea (cf . § 366. a, 6). 

368. The Dative is used — 

1. With the impersonals libet (lubet), it pleases, and licet, it is 
allowed : — 

quod mini maxime lubet (Fam. i. 8. 3), what most pleases me. 
quasi tibi non liceret (id. vi. 8), as if you were not permitted. 

2. With verbs compounded with satis, bene, and male : — 

mini ipse numquam satisfacio (Fam. i. 1), I never satisfy myself 
optimo viro maledlcere (Deiot. 28), to speak ill of a most excellent man. 
pulchrum est benefacere rei publicae (Sail. Cat. 3), it is a glorious thing to 
benefit the state. 

Note. — These are not real compounds, but phrases, and were apparently felt as 
such by the Romans. Thus, — satis officio meo, satis illorum voluntati qui a me hoc 
petiverunt factum esse arbitrator ( Verr. v. 130) , I shall consider that enough has been 
done for my duty, enough for the wishes of those who asked this of me. 

1 See the Lexicon under caved, convenid, cupio, insisto, maneo, praeverto, recipio, re- 
nuntiS, solvo, succedo. 



230 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§368,369 

3. With gratificor, gratulor, nubo, permitto, plaudo, probo, studeo, sup- 
plies, excello : — 

PompeiS se gratificarl putant (Fam. i. 1), they suppose they are doing Pompey 

a service. 
gratulor tibi, mi Balbe (id. vi. 12), I congratulate you, my dear Balbus. 
tibi permitto respondere (N. D. iii. 4), I give you leave to answer. 
mini plaudo ipse doml (Hor. S. i. 1. 66), I applaud myself at home. 
cum inimlcl M. Font§I vobis ac popul5 Romano minentur, amid ac propinqui 
supplicent vobis (Font. 35), while the enemies of Marcus Fonteius are 
threatening you and the Boman people too, while his friends and relatives 
are beseeching you. 
Note. — MisceS and iungo sometimes take the dative (see § 413. a. n.) . Haere5 usually 
takes the ablative, with or without in, rarely the dative : as, — haerentem capiti coro- 
nam (Hor. S. i. 10. 49), a wreath clinging to the head. 

a. The dative is often used by the poets in constructions which 
would in prose require a noun with a preposition. So especially 
with verbs of contending (§ 413. h) : — 

contendis Homero (Prop. i. 7. 3), you vie with Homer. [In prose : cum Homero.] 
placitone etiam ptignabis amor! (Aen. iv. 38), will you struggle even against a 

love that pleases you f 
tibi certat (Eel. v. 8), vies with you. [tecum.] 

differt sermon! (Hor. S. i. 4. 48), differs from prose, [a sermone, § 401.] 
later! abdidit ensem (Aen. ii. 553), buried the sword in his side, [in latere, 
§ 430. ] 
For the Dative instead of ad with the Accusative, see § 428. h. 

369. Some verbs ordinarily intransitive may have an Accusa- 
tive of the direct object along with the Dative of the indirect 

(cf. § 362. a): — 

cui cum rex crucem minaretur (Tusc. i. 102), and when the king threatened 

him with the cross. 
Cretensibus obsides imperavit (Manil. 35), he exacted hostages of the Cretans. 
omnia sibi Ignoscere (Yell. ii. 30), to pardon one's self everything. 
Ascanione pater Romanas invidet arces (Aen. iv. 234), does the father envy 

Ascanius his Boman citadels ? [With invideo this construction is poetic 

or late.] 

a. With the passive voice this dative may be retained : — 
qui iam nunc sanguinem meum sibi indulgeri aequum censet (Liv. xl. 15. 16), 
who even now thinks it right that my blood should be granted to him as a 
favor. 
singulis censSribus denarii trecenti imperatl sunt (Verr. ii. 137), three hun- 
dred denarii were exacted of each censor. 
Scaevolae concessa est facundiae virtus (Quint, xii. 3. 9), to Scaevola has 
been granted excellence in oratory. 



§370] DATIVE WITH COMPOUNDS 231 

Indirect Object with Compounds 

370. Many verbs compounded with ad, ante, con, in, inter, ob, 
post, prae, pro, sub, super, and some with circum, admit the Dative 
of the indirect object : — 

neque enim adsentior eis (Lael. 13), for I do not agree with them. 

quantum natura hoininis pecudibus antecedit (Off. i. 105), so far as man's 
nature is superior to brutes. 

si sibi ipse consentit (id. i. 5), if he is in accord with himself. 

virtiites semper voluptatibus inhaerent (Fin. i. 68), virtues are always con- 
nected with pleasures. 

omnibus negotiis non interfuit solum sed praefuit (id. i. 6), he not only had 
a hand in all matters, but took the lead in them. 

tempestati obsequl artis est (Fam. i. 9. 21), it is a point of skill to yield to 
the weather. 

nee umquam succumbet inimicis (Deiot. 36), and he will never yield to his 
foes. 

cum et Brutus cuilibet ducum praeferendus videretur et Vatinius null! non 
esset postferendus (Veil. ii. 69), since Brutus seemed worthy of being put 
before any of the generals and Vatinius deserved to be put after all of them. 

a. In these cases the dative depends not on the preposition, but 
on the compound verb in its acquired meaning. Hence, if the acquired 
meaning is not suited to an indirect object, the original construction 
of the simple verb remains. 

Thus in convocat su5s, he calls his men together, the idea of calling is not so 
modified as to make an indirect object appropriate. So hominem interficere, to 
make way with a man (kill him). But in praeficere imperatSrem bellS, to put a 
man as commander-in-chief in charge of a war, the idea resulting from the com- 
position is suited to an indirect object (see also b, §§ 371, 388. b). 

Note 1. — Some of these verbs, being originally transitive, take also a direct object : 
as, — ne offeramus nos periculis (Off. i. 83), that we may not expose ourselves to perils. 

Note 2. — The construction of § 370 is not different in its nature from that of §§ 362, 
366, and 367 ; but the compound verbs make a convenient group. 

b. Some compounds of ad, ante, ob, with a few others, have acquired 
a transitive meaning, and take the accusative (cf . § 388. b) : — 1 

nos oppugnat (Fam. i. 1), he opposes us. 

quis audeat bene comitatum aggredi (Phil. xii. 25), who would dare encounter 

a man well attended f 
munus obire (Lael. 7), to attend to a duty. 

1 Such verbs are aggredior, adeo, antecedo, anteeo, antegredior, convenid, ineo, obe5, 
offend5, oppugno, praecedo, subeo. 



232 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§370-373 

c. The adjective obvius and the adverb obviam with a verb take 
the dative : — 

si ille obvius ei futurus non erat (Mil. 47), if he was not intending to get in 

his way. 
mihi obviam venistl (Fam. ii. 16. 3), you came to meet me. 

371. When place or motion is distinctly thought of, the verbs 
mentioned in § 370 regularly take a noun with a preposition : 

inbaeret in visceribus (Tusc. iv. 24), it remains fixed in the vitals. 

bomine conhincto mecum (Tull. 4), a man united to me. 

cum hoc concurrit ipse Eumenes (Nep. Eum. 4. 1), with him Eumenes him- 
self engages in combat (runs together). 

Inserite oculos in curiam (Font. 43), fix your eyes on the senate-house. 

ignis qui est ob os offusus (Tim. 14), the fire which is diffused before the sight. 

obicitur contra istorum impetus Macedonia (Font. 44), Macedonia is set to 
• withstand their attacks. [Cf. si quis vobis error obiectus (Caec. 5), if 
any mistake has been caused you.] 

in segetem flamma incidit (Aen. ii. 304), the fire falls upon the standing corn. 

Note. — But the usage varies in different authors, in different words, and often in 
the same word and the same sense. The Lexicon must be consulted for each verb. 

372. Intransitive verbs that govern the dative are used imper- 
sonally in the passive (§ 208. d). The dative is retained (cf. § 365) : 

cui parci potuit (Liv. xxi. 14), who could be spared? 

non modo non invidetur ill! aetati verum etiam favetur (Off. ii. 45), that age 

(youth) not only is not envied, but is even favored. 
tempori serviendum est(Fam. ix. 7), we must serve the exigency of the occasion. 

Note. — In poetry the personal construction is sometimes found : as, — cur invideor 
(Hor. A. P. 56), why am I envied? 

Dative of Possession 

373. The Dative is used with esse and similar words to denote 

Possession : — 

est mihi domi pater (Eel. iii. 33), I have a father at home (there is to me). 
homini cum deo similitudo est (Legg. i. 25), man has a likeness to God. 
quibus opes niillae sunt (Sail. Cat. 37), [those] who have no wealth. 

Note. — The Genitive or a Possessive with esse emphasizes the possessor; the 
Dative, the fact of possession: as, — liber est meus, the book is mine (and no one's 
else) ; est mihi liber, /have a book (among other things). 

a. With nomen est, and similar expressions, the namx is often put 
in the Dative by a kind of apposition with the person; but the 
Nominative is also common : — 



§§373-375] DATIVE OF THE AGENT 233 

(1) cui Africano fuit cognomen (Li v. xxv. 2), ivhose (to whom) surname was 

Africanus. 
puero ab inopia EgeriS inditum nomen (id. i. 34), the name Egerius was given 
the boy from his poverty. 

(2) puero nomen est Marcus, the boy's name is Marcus (to the boy is, etc.). 
cui nomen Arethusa (Verr. iv. 118), [a fount] called Arethusa. 

Note. — In early LatiD the dative is usual ; Cicero prefers the nominative, Livy the 
dative ; Sallust uses the dative only. In later Latin the genitive also occurs (cf . § 343. d) : 
as, — Q. Metello MacedonicI nomen inditum est (Veil. i. 11), to Quintus Metellus the 
name of Macedonicus ivas given. 

b. Desum takes the dative ; so occasionally absum (which regu- 
larly has the ablative) : — 

hoc unum Caesari defuit (B.G. iv. 26), this only was lacking to Coesar. 
quid huic abesse poterit (De Or. i. 48), what can be wanting to him f 

Dative of the Agent 

374. The Dative of the Agent is used with the Gerundive to 
denote the person on whom the necessity rests : — 

haec vSbis provincia est defendenda (Manil. 14), this province is for you to 

defend (to be defended by you), 
mini est pfignandum, I have to fight (i.e. the need of fighting is to me : cf. 

mini est liber, I have a book, § 373. n.). 

a. This is the regular way of expressing the agent with the Second 
or Passive Periphrastic Conjugation (§ 196). 

Note 1. — The Ablative of the Agent with ab (§ 405) is sometimes used with the Sec- 
ond Periphrastic Conjugation when the Dative would be ambiguous or when a stronger 
expression is desired : — 

quibus est a vobis consulendum (Manil. 6), for whom you must consult. [Here two 

datives, quibus and vobis, would have been ambiguous.] 
rem ab omnibus vobis providendam (Rabir. 4), that the matter must be attended to 
by all of you. [The dative might mean for all of you.] 
Note 2. — The Dative of the Agent is either a special use of the Dative of Posses- 
sion or a development of the Dative of Reference (§ 376) . 

375. The Dative of the Agent is common with perfect parti- 
ciples (especially when used in an adjective sense), but rare with 
other parts of the verb : — 

mini dellberatum et constitutum est (Leg. Agr. i. 25), I have deliberated and 

resolved (it has been deliberated by me), 
mini res pro visa est (Verr. iv. 91), the matter has been provided for by me. 
sic dissimillimis bestiolis communiter cibus quaeritur (N. D. ii. 123), so by 

very different creatures food is sought in common. 



234 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§375-377 

a. The Dative of the Agent is used by the poets and later writers 
with almost any passive verb : — 

neque cernitur ulli (Aen. i. 440), nor is seen by any. 

fellx est dicta sorSri (Ov. Fast. iii. 1. 597), she was called happy by her sister, 
Aelia Paetina Narciss5 fovebatur (Tac. Ann. xii. 1), Mlia Pcetina was 
favored by Narcissus. 

b. The dative of the person who sees or thinks is regularly used 
after videor, seem : — 

videtur mihi, it seems (or seems good) to me. 

dis aliter visum [est] (Aen. ii. 428), it seemed otherwise to the gods. 
videor mihi perspicere ipsius animum (Fam. iv. 13. 5), I seem (to myself) to see 
the soul of the man himself. 

Note. — The verb probare, approve (originally a mercantile word), takes a Dative 
of Reference (§ 376), which has become so firmly attached that it is often retained with 
the passive, seemingly as Dative of Agent : — 

haec sententia et ill! et n5bis probabatur (Fam. i. 7. 5), this view met both his 

approval and mine (was made acceptable both to him and to me) . 
hoc consilium plerisque non probabatur (B. C. i. 72), this plan was not approved by 
the majority. [But also, consilium a cunctis probabatur (id. i. 74).] 

Dative of Reference 

376. The Dative often depends, not on any particular word, but 
on the general meaning of the sentence (Dative of Reference). 

The dative in this construction is often called the Dative of 
Advantage or Disadvantage, 1 as denoting the person or thing for 
whose benefit or to whose prejudice the action is performed. 

tibi aras (Plaut. Merc. 71), you plough for yourself. 

tuas res tibi habeto (Plaut. Trin. 266), keep your goods to yourself (formula 

of divorce), 
laudavit mihi f ratrem, he praised my brother (out of regard for me ; laudavit 

fratrem meum would imply no such motive), 
meritos mactavit honores, taurum Neptuno, taurum tibi, pulcher Apollo 
(Aen. iii. 118), he offered the sacrifices due, a bull to Neptune, a bull to 
thee, beautiful Apollo. 
Note. — In this construction the meaning of the sentence is complete without the 
dative, which is not, as in the preceding constructions, closely connected with any sin- 
gle word. Thus the Dative of Reference is easily distinguishable in most instances 
even when the sentence consists of only two words, as in the first example. 

377. The Dative of Eeference is often used to qualify a whole 
idea, instead of the Possessive Genitive modifying a single word : 

1 Dativus commodi aut incommodi. 



§§377-379] DATIVE OF KEFEKENCE 235 

iter Poems vel corporibus suis obstruere (Cat. M. 75), to block the march of 
the Carthaginians even with their own bodies (to block, etc., for the dis- 
advantage of, etc.). 

se in conspectum nautis dedit (Verr. v. 86), he put himself in sight of the 
sailors (he put himself to the sailors into sight). 

versatur mihi ante oculos (id. v. 123), it comes before my eyes (it comes to me 
before the eyes). 

378. The Dative is used of the person from whose point of view 
an opinion is stated or a situation or a direction is defined. 

This is often called the Dative of the Person Judging/ but is 
merely a weakened variety of the Dative of Eeference. It is used — 

1. Of the mental point of view (in my opinion, according to me, 
etc.) : — 

Plato mihi unus instar est centum milium (Brut. 191), in my opinion (to me) 

Plato alone is worth a hundred thousand. 
erit ille mihi semper deus (Eel. i. 7), he will always be a god to me (in my 

regard), 
quae est ista servitiis tarn claro homini (Par. 41), what is that slavery according 

to the view of this distinguished man ? 

2. Of the local point of view (as you go in etc.). In this use the 
person is commonly denoted indefinitely by a participle in the dative 
plural : — 

oppidum prlmum Thessaliae venientibus ab Epiro (B. C. iii. 80), the first town 
of Thessaly as you come from Epirus (to those coming, etc.). 

laeva parte sinum intrant! (Liv. xxvi. 26), on the left as you sail up the gulf 
(to one entering). 

est urbe egressis tumulus (Aen. ii. 713), there is, as you come out of the city, 
a mound (to those having come out). 

Note. —The Dative of the Person Judging is (by a Greek idiom) rarely modified by 
nolens, volens (participles of nolo, void), or by some similar word: — 

ut quibusque bellum invitis aut cupientibus erat (Tac. Ann. i. 59), as each might 

receive the war reluctantly or gladly. 
ut militibus labos volentibus esset (lug. 100) , that the soldiers might assume the 
task willingly. 

379. The Dative of Reference is used idiomatically without 

any verb in colloquial questions and exclamations : — 

quo mihi fortunam (Hor. Ep. i. 5. 12), of what use to me is fortune? 
unde mihi lapidem (Hor. S. ii. 7. 116), where can I get a stone? 
quo tibi, Till! (id. i. 6. 24), what use for you, Tillius? 

1 Dativus iudicantis. 



236 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§379-381 

a. The dative of reference is sometimes used after interjections : 
ei (hei) mihi (Aen. ii. 274), ah me! 
vae victis (Liv. v. 48), woe to the conquered. 
em tibi, there, take that (there for you)! [Cf. § 380.] 

Note. — To express for — meaning instead of, in defence of, in behalf of — the 
ablative with pro is used: — 

pro patria mori (Hor. Od. iii. 2. 13), to die for one's country. 
ego lbo pro te (Plaut. Most. 1131), I will go instead of you. 



Ethical Dative 

380. The Dative of the Personal Pronouns is used to show a 
certain interest felt by the person indicated. 1 

This construction is called the Ethical Dative. 2 It is really a 
faded variety of the Dative of Eef erence. 

quid mihi Celsus agit (Hor. Ep. i. 3. 15), pray what is Celsus doing ? 

suo sibi servit patri (Plaut. Capt. 5), he serves his own father. 

at tibi repente venit mihi Caninius (Fam. ix. 2), but, look you, of a sudden 

comes to me Caninius. 
hem tibi talentum argenti (PI. True. 60), hark ye, a talent of silver. 
quid tibi vis, what would you have (what do you wish for yourself) ? 

Dative of Separation 

381. Many verbs of taking away and the like take the Dative 
(especially of a person) instead of the Ablative of Separation 
(§ 401). " 

Such are compounds of ab, de, ex, and a few of ad : — 

aureum ei detraxit amiculum (N. D. iii. 83), he took from him his cloak of 

gold. 
hunc mihi terrorem eripe (Cat. i. 18), take from me this terror. 
vitam adulescentibus vis aufert (Cat. M. 71), violence deprives young men of 

life. 
nihil enim tibi detraxit senatus (Fam. i. 5 b), for the senate has taken nothing 

from you. 
nee mihi hunc errorem extorqueri volo (Cat. M. 85), nor do I wish this error 

wrested from me. 

Note. — The Dative of Separation is a variety of the Dative of Reference. It repre- 
sents the action as done to the person or thing, and is thus more vivid than the Ablative. 

1 Compare "I'll rhyme you so eight years together." — As You Like It, iii. 2. 

2 Dativus ethicus. 



§§ 381, 382] DATIVE OF THE PURPOSE OR END 287 

a. The distinct idea of motion requires the ablative with a prep- 
osition — thus generally with names of things (§ 426. 1) : — 
ilium ex periculo eripuit (B. G. iv. 12), he dragged him out of danger. 

Note. — Sometimes the dative of the person and the ablative of the thing with a 
preposition are both used with the same verb : as, — mihi praeda de manibus eripitur 
(Verr. ii. 1. 142), the booty is wrested from my hands. 

Dative of the Purpose or End 

382. The Dative is used to denote the Purpose or End, often 
with another Dative of the person or thing affected. 

This use of the dative, once apparently general, remains in 
only a few constructions, as follow r s : — 

1. The dative of an abstract noun is used to show that for which 
a thing serves or which it accomplishes, often with another dative of 
the person or thing affected : — 

rel publicae cladi sunt (lug. 85. 43), they are ruin to the state (they are for a 

disaster to the state). 
magno usui nostrls fuit (B. G. iv. 25), it was of great service to our men (to 

our men for great use), 
tertiam aciem nostrls subsidiS misit (id. i. 52), he sent the third line as a relief 

to our men. 
suis saluti fuit (id. vii. 50), he was the salvation of his men. 
evenit facile quod dls cordi esset (Li v. i. 39), that came to pass easily which 

was desired by the gods (was for a pleasure [lit. heart] to the gods). 

Note 1. — This construction is often called the Dative of Service, or the Double 
Dative construction. The verb is usually sum. The noun expressing the end for 
which is regularly abstract and singular in number and is never modified by an adjec- 
tive, except one of degree (magnus, minor, etc.), or by a genitive. 

Note 2. — The word frugi used as an adjective is a dative of this kind: — 
cogis me dicere inimicum Frugi (Font. 39), you compel me to call my enemy Honest. 
homines satis fortes et plane frugi (Verr. iii. 67), men brave enough and thoroughly 
honest. Cf. ero frugi bonae (Plaut. Pseud. 468), I will be good for some- 
thing. [See § 122. &.] 

2. The Dative of Purpose of concrete nouns is used in prose in a 
few military expressions, and with freedom in poetry : — 

locum castris deligit (B. G. vii. 16), he selects a site for a camp. 
receptui canere, to sound a retreat (for a retreat), 
receptui signum (Phil. xiii. 15), the signal for retreat. 
optavit locum regn5 (Aen. iii. 109), he chose a place for a kingdom. 
locum insidiis circumspectare (Liv. xxi. 53), to look about for a place for an 
ambush. [Cf. locum seditionis quaerere (id. iii. 46).] 
For the Dative of the Gerundive denoting Purpose, see § 505. 6. 



238 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§383-385 

Dative with Adjectives 

383. The Dative is used after Adjectives or Adverbs, to denote 
that to which the given quality is directed, for which it exists, or 
towards which it tends. 

Note. — The dative with certain adjectives is in origin a Dative of Purpose or End. 

384. The Dative is used with adjectives (and a few Adverbs) of 
fitness, nearness, likeness, service, inclination, and their opposites : J 

nihil est tarn naturae aptum (Lael. 17), nothing is so fitted to nature. 

nihil difficile amanti puto (Or. 33), I think nothing hard to a lover. 

castris idoneum locum delegit (B. G. i. 49), he selected a place suitable for a 
camp. 

tribmri nobis sunt amlci (Q. Fr. i. 2. 16), the tribunes are friendly to us. 

esse propitius potest nemini (N. D. i. 124), he can be gracious to nobody. 

magnls autem viris prosperae semper omnes res (id. ii. 167), but to great men 
everything is always favorable. 

sedes huic nostro non importtina sermSni (De Or. iii. 18), a place not unsuit- 
able for this conversation of ours. 

cui funds erat afflnis M. Tullius (Tull. 14), to which estate Marcus Tullius was 
next neighbor. 

convenienter naturae vivere (Off. iii. 13), to live in accordance with nature 
(6fio\oyovfjL4vu)s ttj 0&rei). 

Note 1. — So, also, in poetic and colloquial use, with idem : as, — invitum qui servat 
idem f acit Occident! (Hor. A. P. 467) , he who saves a man against his will does the same 
as one who kills him. 

Note 2. — Adjectives of likeness are often followed by atque (ac), as. So also 
the adverbs aeque, pariter, similiter, etc. The pronoun idem has regularly atque or a 
relative : — 

si parem sapientiam habet ac formam (Plaut. Mil. 1251), if he has sense equal to 

his beauty (like as his beauty) . 
te suspicor eisdem rebus quibus me ipsum commoveri (Cat. M. 1), I suspect you are 
disturbed by the same things by which I am. 

385. Other constructions are sometimes found where the dative 
might be expected : — 

a. Adjectives of fitness or use take oftener the Accusative with ad 
to denote the purpose or end ; but regularly the Dative of persons : — 

aptus ad rem militarem, fit for a soldier's duty. 

locus ad insidias aptior (Mil. 53), a place fittest* for lying in wait. 

nobis utile est ad hanc rem (cf. Ter. And. 287), it is of use to us for this thing. 

1 Adjectives of this kind are accommodatus, aptus ; amicus, inimicus, infestus, invisus, 
molestus ; idoneus, opportunus, proprius ; utilis, inutilis ; afflnis, finitimus, propinquus, 
vicinus ; par, dispar, similis, dissimilis ; iucundus, gratus ; notus, ignStus, and others. 



§ 385] DATIVE WITH ADJECTIVES 239 

6. Adjectives and nouns of inclination and the like may take the 
Accusative with in or erga : — 

comis in uxorem (Hor. Ep. ii. 2. 133), kind to his wife. 

divina bonitas erga homines (N. D. ii. 60), the divine goodness towards men. 

de benevolentia quam quisque habeat erga nos (Off. i. 47), in regard to each 

man's good will which he has towards us, 
gratiorem me esse in te (Fam. xi. 10), that I am more grateful to you. 

c. Some adjectives of likeness, nearness, belonging, and a few 
others, ordinarily requiring the Dative, often take the Possessive 
Genitive : — * 

quod ut illi proprium ac perpetuum sit . . . optare debetis (Manil. 48), which 

you ought to pray may be secure (his own) and lasting to him. [Dative.] 

fuit hoc quondam proprium populi Roman! (id. 32), this was once the peculiar 

characteristic of the Roman people. [Genitive.] 
cum utrique sis maxime necessarius (Att. ix. 7 a), since you are especially 

bound to both. [Dative.] 
procurator aeque utriusque necessarius (Quinct. 86), an agent alike closely 
connected with both. [Genitive.] 

1. The genitive is especially used with these adjectives when they are 
used wholly or approximately as nouns : — 

amicus Cicerdni, friendly to Cicero. But, Ciceronis amicus, a friend of Cicero ; 

and even, Ciceronis amicissimus, a very great friend of Cicero. 
creticus et eius aequalis paean (Or. 215), the cretic and its equivalent thepcean, 
hi erant affines istius (Verr. ii. 36), these were this man 1 s fellows. 

2. After similis, like, the genitive is more common in early writers. 
Cicero regularly uses the genitive of persons, and either the genitive or the 
dative of things. With personal pronouns the genitive is regular (mei, tui, 
etc.), and also in veri similis, probable : — 

domini similis es (Ter. Eun. 496), you We like your master (your master's like), 

ut essemus similes deorum (N. D. i. 91), that we might be like the gods. 

est similis maiorum suom (Ter. Ad. 411), he's like his ancestors. 

patris similis esse (Off. i. 121), to be like his father. 

simia quam similis turpissima bestia nobis (N. D. i. 97, quoted from Enn.), 

how like us is that wretched beast the ape ! 
si enim hoc ill! simile sit, est illud huic (id. i. 90), for if this is like that, that 
is like this. 
Note. — The genitive in this construction is not objective like those in § 349. but 
possessive (cf . § 343) . 

For the Dative or Accusative with propior, proximus, propius, proximS, see § 482. a. 

1 Such are aequalis, affinis, alienus, amicus, cognatus, communis, consanguineus, contra 
rius, dispar, familiaris, finitimus, inimicus, necessarius, par, peculiaris, propinquus, proprius 
(regularly genitive), sacer, similis, superstes, vicinus. 



240 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OP CASES [§§386,387 



ACCUSATIVE CASE 

386. The Accusative originally served to connect the noun more or less loosely 
with the verb-idea, whether expressed by a verb proper or by a verbal noun or adjec- 
tive. Its earliest use was perhaps to repeat the verb-idea as in the Cognate Accusative 
(run a race, fight a battle, see § 390) . From this it would be a short step to the Factitive 
Accusative (denoting the result of an act, as in make a table, drill a hole, cf . § 273. n. 1 ). 
From this last could easily come the common accusative (of Affecting, break a table, 
plug a hole, see § 387. a) . Traces of all these uses appear in the language, and the loose 
connection of noun with verb-idea is seen in the use of stems in composition (cf . § 265. 3) .* 
It is impossible, however, to derive the various constructions of the accusative with 
certainty from any single function of that case. 

The uses of the accusative may be classified as follows : 

{1. Directly affected by the Action (§ 387. a). 
2. Effectof the Action (P^T^ 53 ?^ 
[ Cognate Accusative (§ 390) . 

{1. Predicate Accusative (Of Naming etc.) (§ 393). 
2. Of Asking or Teaching (§ 396). 
3. Of Concealing (§ 396. c). 

1. Adverbial (§397. a). 

2. Of Specification (Greek Accusative) (§ 397. b). 

3. Of Extent and Duration (§§ 423, 425). 

4. Of Exclamation (§ 397. d). 

5. Subject of Infinitive (§ 397. e). 



III. Idiomatic Uses: 



Direct Object 

387. The Direct Object of a transitive verb is put in the Ac- 
cusative (§ 274). 

a. The Accusative of the Direct Object denotes (1) that which is 
directly affected, or (2) that which is caused or produced by the action 
of the verb : — 

(1) Brutus Caesarem interfecit, Brutus killed Ccesar. 

(2) aedem facere, to make a temple. [Cf. proelium pugnare, to fight a battle, 

§ 390.] 
Note. — There is no definite line by which transitive verbs can be distinguished 
from intransitive. Verbs which usually take a direct object (expressed or implied) 
are called transitive, but many of these are often used intransitively or absolutely. 
Thus timed, I fear, is transitive in the sentence inimicum timeo, I fear my enemy, but 
intransitive (absolute) in noli timere, don't be afraid. Again, many verbs are transi- 
tive in one sense and intransitive in another: as, — Helvetios superaverunt Roman!, the 
Romans overcame the Helvetians ; but nihil superabat, nothing remained (was left over) . 
So also many verbs commonly intransitive may be used transitively with a slight 
change of meaning : as, — rides, you are laughing; but me rides, you We laughing at me. 

1 Compare armiger, armor-bearer, witharma gerere, to bear arms; fidicen, lyre-player, 
with fidibus canere, to (play on) sing to the lyre. Compare also istanc tactio (Plaut.), the 
[act of] touching her t with istanc tangere, to touch her (§ 388. d. n. 2 ). 



§§ 387, 388] ACCUSATIVE OF DIRECT OBJECT 241 

b. The object of a transitive verb in the active voice becomes its 
subject in the passive, and is put in the nominative (§ 275) : — 

Brutus Caesarem interfecit, Brutus killed Ccesar. 

Caesar a Brfito interfectus est, Coesar was killed by Brutus. 

domum aedificat, he builds a house. 

domus aedificatur, the house is building (being built). 

388. Certain special verbs require notice. 

a. Many verbs apparently intransitive, expressing feeling, take 
an accusative, and may be used in the passive : — 

meum casum luctumque doluerunt (Sest. 145), they grieved at my calamity 

and sorrow. 
si non Acrisium rlsissent Iuppiter et Venus (Hor. Od. iii. 16. 5), if Jupiter 

and Venus had not laughed at Acrisius. 
ridetur ab omnl conventu (Hor. S. i. 7. 22), he is laughed at by the whole 

assembly. 

For the Cognate Accusative with verbs of taste, smell, and the like, see § 390. a. 
Note. — Some verbs commonly intransitive may be used transitively (especially in 
poetry) from a similarity of meaning with other verbs that take the accusative : — 
gemens ignominiam (Georg. iii. 226), groaning at the disgrace. [Cf. doleo.] 
festinare fugam (Aen. iv. 575), to hasten their flight. [Cf. accelero.] 
comptos arsit cruris (Hor. Od. iv. 9. 13), she burned with love for his well-combed 
locks. [Cf. adam5.] 

b. Verbs of motion, compounds of circum, trans, and praeter, and 
a few others, frequently become transitive, and take the accusative 
(cf. § 370. b) : — 

mortem oblre, to die (to meet death). 

consulatum ineunt (Liv. ii. 28), they enter upon the consulship. 
neminem conveni (Fam. ix. 14), I met no one. 
si insulam adisset (B. G. iv. 20), if he should go to the island. 
transire flumen (id. ii. 23), to cross the river (cf. § 395). 

elves qui circurnstant senatum (Cat. i. 21), the citizens who stand about the 
senate. 
Note. — Among such verbs are some compounds of ad, in, per, and sub. 

c. The accusative is used after the impersonals decet, dedecet, delec- 

tat, iuvat, oportet, f allit, f ugit, praeterit : — 

ita ut vos decet (Plaut. Most. 729), so as befits you. 

me pedibus delectat claudere verba (Hor. S. ii. 1. 28), my delight is (it 

pleases me) to arrange words in measure. 
nisi me f allit, unless I am mistaken (unless it deceives me), 
ifivit me tibi tuas litteras profuisse (Fam. v. 21. 3), it pleased me that your 

literary studies had profited you. 
te non praeterit (Fam. i. 8. 2), it does not escape your notice. 



242 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§388-390 

Note 1. — So after latet in poetry and post-classical prose: as, — latet plerSsque 
(Plin. N. H. ii. 82), it is unknown to most persons. 

Note 2. — These verbs are merely ordinary transitives with an idiomatic significa- 
tion. Hence most of them are also used personally. 

Note 3. — Decet and latet sometimes take the dative: — 
ita ndbls decet (Ter. Ad. 928), thus it befits us. 
hostique Roma latet (Sil. It. xii. 614), and Borne lies hidden from the foe. 

d. A few verbs in isolated expressions take the accusative from 
a forcing of their meaning. Such expressions are : — 

ferire foedus, to strike a treaty (i.e. to sanction by striking down a victim), 
vincere iudicium (sponsionem, rem, h5c), to prevail on a trial, etc. [As if the 

case were a difficulty to overcome ; cf. vincere iter, Aen. vi. 688.] 
aequor navigare (Aen. i. 67), to sail the sea. [As if it were transire, § 388. &.] 
maria aspera iuro (id. vi. 351), I swear by the rough seas (cf. id. vi. 324). 

[The accusative with verbs of swearing is chiefly poetic] 
noctis dormire, to sleep [whole] nights (to spend in sleep). 
Note 1. — These accusatives are of various kinds. The last example approaches 
the cognate construction (cf. the second example under § 390). 

Note 2. — In early and popular usage some nouns and adjectives derived from tran- 
sitive verbs retain verbal force sufficient to govern the accusative : — 

quid tibi istanc tactio est (Plaut. Poen. 1308), what business have you to touch her? 

[Cf . tango.] 
mirabundi bestiam (Ap. Met. iv. 16), full of wonder at the creature. [Cf. miror.] 
vitabundus castra (Liv. xxv. 13), trying to avoid the camp. [Cf. vlto.] 

389. Many verbs ordinarily transitive may be used absolutely, 
having their natural object in the ablative with de (§ 273. N. 2 ): — 

prmsquam Pomponius de eius adventu cognosceret (B. C. iii. 101), before 
Pomponius could learn of his coming. [Cf. eius adventu c5gnit5, his 
arrival being discovered.] 

For Accusative and Genitive after Impersonals, see § 354. b. For the Accusative 
after the impersonal Gerundive with esse, see § 500. 3. 

Cognate Accusative 

390. An intransitive verb often takes the Accusative of a noun 
of kindred meaning, usually modified by an adjective or in some 
other manner. 

This construction is called the Cognate Accusative or Accusative 
of Kindred Signification : — 

tutiorem vitam vivere (Verr. ii. 118), to live a safer life. 

tertiam iam aetatem hominum vivebat (Cat. M. 31), he was now living the 

third generation of men. 
servitutem servire, to be in slavery. 
coire societatem, to [go together and] form an alliance. 



§ 390] COGNATE ACCUSATIVE 243 

a. Verbs of taste, smell, and the like take a cognate accusative 
of the quality : — 

vinum redolens (Phil. ii. 63), smelling [of] wine. 

herbam mella sapiunt (Plin. H. N. xi. 18), the honey tastes [of] grass. 

olere malitiam (Rose. Com. 20), to have the odor of malice. 

Cordubae natis poetis, pingue quiddam sonantibus atque peregrmum (Arch. 

26), to poets born at Cordova, whose speech had a somewhat thick and 

foreign accent. 

b. The cognate accusative is often loosely used by the poets : — 
huic errorl similem [errorem] msanlre (Hor. S. ii. 3. 62), to suffer a delusion 

like this. 
saltare CyclSpa (id. i. 5. 63), to dance the Cyclops (represent in dancing). 
Bacchanalia vivere (Iuv. ii. 3), to live in revellings. 
AmaryUida resonare (Eel. i. 5), to reecho [the name of] Amaryllis. 
intonnit laevum (Aen. ii. 693), it thundered on the left. 
dulce ridentem, dulee loquentem (Hor. Od. i. 22. 23), sweetly smiliyig, sweetly 

prattling. 
acerba tuens (Aen. ix. 794), looking fiercely . [Cf. Eng. "to look daggers."] 
torvum clamat (id. vii. 399), he cries harshly. 

c. A neuter pronoun or an adjective of indefinite meaning is very 
common as cognate accusative (cf. §§ 214. d, 397. a): — 

Empedocles multa alia peccat (N. D. i. 29), Empedocles commits many other 

errors. 
ego illud adsentior Theophrasto (De Or. iii. 184), in this I agree with Theo- 

phrastus. 
multum te ista fefellit opinio (Verr. ii. 1. 88), you were much deceived in this 

expectation (this expectation deceived you much), 
plus valeo, I have more strength. 
plurimum potest, he is strongest. 

quid me ista laedunt (Leg. Agr. ii. 32), what harm do those things do me ? 
h5c te moneo, I give you this warning (cf. d. n. 2 ). 
id laetor, I rejoice at this (cf. d. n. l ). 
quid moror, why do I delay ? 
quae homines arant, navigant, aedificant (Sail. Cat. ii. 7), what men do in 

ploughing, sailing, and building. 

d. So in many common phrases : — 

si quid ille se velit (B. G. i. 34), if he should want anything of him (if he 

should want him in anything), 
numquid, Geta, aliud me vis (Ter. Ph. 151), can I do anything more for you, 

Geta (there is nothing you want of me, is there)? [A common form 

of leave-taking.] 
quid est quod, etc., why is it that, etc.? [Cf. hoc erat quod (Aen. ii. 664), 

was it for this that, etc. ?] 



244 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§390-393 

Note 1. — In these cases substantives with a definite meaning would be in some 

other construction : — 

in hoc eodem peccat, he errs in this same point. 
bonis rebus laetari, to rejoice at prosperity . [Also: in, de, or ex.] 
de testamento monere, to remind one of the will. [Later: genitive, § 351.] 
oftici admonere, to remind one of his duty. [Also : de officio.] 
Note 2. — In some of these cases the connection of the accusative with the verb has 

so faded out that the words have become real adverbs: as, — multum, plus, plurimum; 

plerumque, for the most part, generally; ceterum, cetera, for the rest, otherwise, but; 

primum, first; nihil, by no means, not at all; aliquid, somewhat; quid,iohy; facile, easily. 

So in the comparative of adverbs (§ 218). But the line cannot be sharply drawn, and 

some of the examples under b may be classed as adverbial. 



Two Accusatives 

391. Some transitive verbs take a second accusative in addi- 
tion to their Direct Object. 

This second accusative is either (1) a Predicate Accusative or 
(2) a Secondary Object. 

Predicate Accusative 

392. An accusative in the Predicate referring to the same per- 
son or thing as the Direct Object, but not in apposition with it, 
is called a Predicate Accusative. 

393. Verbs of naming, choosing, appointing, making, esteeming, 
showing, and the like, may take a Predicate Accusative along 
with the direct object : — 

o Spartace, quern enim te potius appellem (Phil. xiii. 22), Spartacus, for 

what else shall I call you (than Spartacus) ? 
Ciceronem consulem creare, to elect Cicero consul. 
me augurem nominaverunt (Phil. ii. 4), they nominated me for augur. 
cum gratias ageret quod se consulem fecisset (De Or. ii. 268), when he thanked 

him because he had made him consul (supported his candidacy). 
hominem prae se neminem putavit (Rose. Am. 135), he thought nobody a man 

in comparison with himself. 
ducem se praebuit (Vat. 33), he offered himself as a leader. 

Note. — The predicate accusative may be an adjective: as, — homines mitis red- 
didit et mansuetos (Inv. i. 2), has made men mild and gentle. 

a. In changing from the active voice to the passive, the Predicate 
Accusative becomes Predicate Nominative (§ 284) : — 

rex ab suis appellator (B. G. viii. 4), he is called king by his subjects. [Active : 
sui eum regem appellant. ] 



§§ 394, 395] ACCUSATIVE OF THE SECONDARY OBJECT 245 

Secondary Object 

394. The Accusative of the Secondary Object is used (along 
with the direct object) to denote something more remotely affected 
by the action of the verb. 

395. Transitive verbs compounded with prepositions sometimes 
take (in addition to the direct object) a Secondary Object, origi- 
nally governed by the preposition : — 

Caesar Germanos flumen traicit (B. C. i. 83), Coesar throws the Germans 

across the river. 
idem ius iurandum adigit Afranium (id. i. 76), he exacts the same oath from 

Afranius. 
quos Poropeius omnia sua praesidia circumduxit (id. iii. 61), whom Pompey 

conducted through all his garrison. 

Note 1. — This construction is common only with traducd, traicid, and transports. 
The preposition is sometimes repeated with compounds of trans, and usually with 
compounds of the other prepositions. The ablative is also used: — 

donee res suas trans Halyn flumen traicerent (Liv. xxxviii. 25), till they should get 

their possessions across the river Halys. 
(exercitus) Pado traiectus Cremonam (id. xxi. 56), the army ivas conveyed across 
the Po to Cremona (by way of the Po, § 429. a). 
Note 2. — The secondary object may be retained with a passive verb : as, — Belgae 
Rhenum traducti sunt (B. G. ii. 4), the Belgians ivere led over the Rhine. 

Note 3. — The double construction indicated in § 395 is possible only when the force 
of the preposition and the force of the verb are each distinctly felt in the compound, 
the verb governing the direct, and the preposition the secondary object. 

But often the two parts of the compound become closely united to form a transitive 
verb of simple meaning. In this case the compound verb is transitive solely by virtue 
of its prepositional part and can have but one accusative, — the same which was for- 
merly the secondary object, but which now becomes the direct. So traicid comes to 
mean either (1) to pierce (anybody) [by hurling] or (2) to cross (a river etc.): — 

gladio hominem traiecit, he pierced the man with a sivord. [Here iacio has lost 
all transitive force, and serves simply to give the force of a verb to the mean- 
ing of trans, and to tell the manner of the act.] 
Rhodanum traiecit, he crossed the Rhone. [Here iacio has become simply a verb 
of motion, and traicio is hardly distinguishable from transeo.] 
In these examples hominem and Rhodanum, which would be secondary objects if traiecit 
were used in its primary signification, have become the direct objects. Hence in the 
passive construction they become the subjects and are put in the nominative: — 
homo traiectus est gladio, the man was pierced with a sword. 
Rhodanus traiectus est, the Rhone was crossed. 
The poetical traiectus lora (Aen. ii. 273), pierced with thongs, comes from a mixture of 
two constructions : (1) eum traiecit lora, he rove thongs through him, 1 and (2) eum 
traiecit loris, he pierced him with thongs. In putting the sentence into a passive form, 
the direct object of the former (lora) is irregularly kept, and the direct object of th& 
latter (eum) is made the subject. 

1 Perhaps not found in the active, but cf . traiecto fune (Aen. v. 488). 



246 SYNTAX : CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§ 396 

396. Some verbs of ashing and teaching may take two accusa- 
tives, one of the Person (direct object), and the other of the Thing 
{secondary object): — 

me sententiam rogavit, he asked me my opinion. 

otium divos rogat (Hor. Od. ii. 16. 1), lie prays the gods for rest. 

haec praetorem postulabas (Tull. 39), you demanded this of the prcetor. 

aedilis populum rogare (Liv. vi. 42), to ask the people [to elect] cediles. 

docere pueros elementa, to teach children their A B Cs. 

Note. — This construction is found in classical authors with oro, posco, reposco, rogo, 
interrogo, flagito, doceo. 

a. Some verbs of asking take the ablative of the person with a 
preposition instead of the accusative. So, always, peto (ab), quaero 
(ex, ab, de); usually posco (ab), flagito (ab), postulS (ab), and occa- 
sionally others : — 

pacem ab Romanis petierunt (B. G. ii. 13), they sought peace from the Romans. 
quod quaesivit ex me P. Apuleius (Phil. vi. 1), what Publius Apuleius asked 
of me. 

b. With the passive of some verbs of asking or teaching, the per- 
son or the thing may be used as subject (cf. c. n. 2 ) : — 

Caesar sententiam rogatus est, Ccesar was asked his opinion. 

id ab eo flagitabatur (B. C. i. 71), this was urgently demanded of him. 

Note. — The accusative of the thing may be retained with the passive of rogo, and 
of verbs of teaching, and occasionally with a few other verbs : — 

fuerant h5c rogati (Cael. 64), they had been asked this. 

poscor meum Laelapa (Ov. M. vii. 771), I am asked for my Lselaps. 

Cicero cuncta edoctus (Sail. Cat. 45), Cicero, being informed of everything. 
But with most verbs of asking in prose the accusative of the thing becomes the 
subject nominative, and the accusative of the person is put in the ablative with a 
preposition: as, — ne postulantur quidem vires a senectute (Cat. M. 34), strength is 
not even expected of an old man (asked from old age). 

c. The verb celo, conceal, may take two accusatives, and the usually 
intransitive lateo, lie hid, an accusative of the person : — 

non te celavl sermonem T. Ampi (Fam. ii. 16. 3), I did not conceal from you 

the talk of Titus Ampius. 
nee latuere doll fratrem Iunonis (Aen. i. 130), nor did the wiles of Juno 

escape the notice of her brother. 

Note 1. — The accusative of the person with lated is late or poetical (§ 388. c. n. *) . 

Note 2. — All the double constructions indicated in § 396 arise from the waver- 
ing meaning of the verbs. Thus doceo means both to show a thing, and to instruct 
a person ; celo, to keep a person in the dark, and to hide a thing ; rogo, to question 
a person, and to ask a question or a thing. Thus either accusative may be regarded 
as the direct object, and so become the subject of the passive (cf. b above), but for 
convenience the accusative of the thing is usually called secondary. 



§397] IDIOMATIC USES OF THE ACCUSATIVE 247 

Idiomatic Uses 
397. The Accusative has the following special uses : — 

a. The accusative is found in a few adverbial phrases {Adverbial 
Accusative): — 

id temporis, at that time; id (istuc) aetatis, at that age. 

id (quod) genus, of that (what) sort (perhaps originally nominative). 

meam vicem, on my part. 

bonam partem, in a great measure ; maximam partem, for the most part. 

virile (muliebre) secus, of the male (female) sex (probably originally in 

apposition), 
quod si, but if (as to which, if) ; quod nisi, if not 

b. The so-called synecdochical or Greek Accusative, found in poetry 
and later Latin, is used to denote the part affected : — 

caput nectentur (Aen. v. 309), their heads shall be bound (they shall be bound 

about the head), 
ardentis oculos suffecti sanguine et igni (id. ii. 210), their glaring eyes blood* 

shot and blazing with fire (suffused as to their eyes with blood and fire), 
nuda genu (id. i. 320), with her knee bare (bare as to the knee), 
femur tragula ictus (Liv. xxi. 7. 10), wounded in the thigh by a dart. 

Note. — This construction is also called the Accusative of Specification. 

c. In many apparently similar expressions the accusative may be 
regarded as the direct object of a verb in the middle voice (§ 156. a) : 

inutile ferrum cingitur (Aen. ii. 510), he girds on the useless steel. 

nodo sinus collecta fluentis (id. i. 320), having her flowing folds gathered in 

a knot. 
umerSs insternor pelle leonis (id. ii. 722), I cover my shoulders with a lion's 

skin. 
pr5tinus induitur faciem cultumque Dianae (Ov. M. ii. 425), forthwith she 

assumes the shape and garb of Diana. 

d. The Accusative is used in Exclamations : — 

o forttinatam rem piiblicam, O fortunate republic ! [Cf. o fortunata mors 

(Phil. xiv. 31), oh, happy death! (§339. a).] 
o me Infellcem (Mil. 102), oh, unhappy I ! 
me miserum, ah, wretched me ! 
en quattuor aras (Eel. v. 65), lo,four altars! 
ellum (= em ilium), there he is ! [Cf. § 146. a. n. 2 .] 
eccOs (= ecce eos), there they are, look at them ! 
pro deum fidem, good heavens (O protection of the gods) ! 
hocine saeclum (Ter. Ad. 304), O this generation! 
huncine hominem (Verr. v. 62), this man, good heavens! 



248 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§397,398 

Note 1. — Such expressions usually depend upon some long-forgotten verb. The 
substantive is commonly accompanied by an adjective. The use of -ne in some cases 
suggests an original question, as in quid? what? why? tell me. 

Note 2. — The omission of the verb has given rise to some other idiomatic accusa- 
tives. Such are : — 

salutem (sc. dicit) (in addressing a letter), greeting. 
me dius fidius (sc. adiuvet), so help me heaven (the god of faith), 
unde mini lapidem (Hor. S. ii. 7. 116), where can I get a stone? 
quo mihi fortunam (Hor. Ep. i. 5. 12), of what use to me is fortune? [No verb 
thought of.] 

e. The subject of an infinitive is in the accusative : — 
intellego te sapere (Fam. vii. 32. 3), I perceive that you are wise. 
eas res iactari nolebat (B. G. i. 18), he was unwilling that these matters should 
be discussed. 

Note. — This construction is especially common with verbs of knowing, thinking, 
telling, and perceiving (§ 580) . 

/. The accusative in later writers is sometimes used in apposition 
with a clause : — 

deserunt tribunal . . . mantis intentantes, causam discordiae et initium armo- 
rum (Tac. Ann. i. 27), they abandon the tribunal shaking their fists, — ■ 
a cause of dissension and the beginning of war. 

Note. — This construction is an extension (under Greek influence) of a usage more 
nearly within the ordinary rules, such as, — Eumenem prodidere Antiocho, pacis merce- 
dem (Sail. Ep. Mith. 8), they betrayed Eumenes to Antiochus, the price of peace. [Here 
Eumenes may be regarded as the price, although the real price is the betrayal.] 

For the Accusative of the End of Motion, see § 427. 2 ; for the Accusative of Dura- 
tion of Time and Extent of Space, see §§ 423, 425 ; for the Accusative with Prepositions, 
see § 220. 

ABLATIVE CASE 

398. Under the name Ablative are included the meanings and, in part, the forms 
of three cases, — the Ablative proper, expressing the relation from; the Locative, 
in ; and the Instrumental, with or by. These three cases were originally not wholly 
distinct in meaning, and their confusion was rendered more certain (1) by the develop- 
ment of meanings that approached each other and (2) by phonetic decay, by means of 
which these cases have become largely identical in form. Compare, for the first, the 
phrases a parte dextera, on the right; quam ob causam, from which cause; ad famam, 
at (in consequence of) the report; and, for the second, the like forms of the dative 
and ablative plural, the old dative in -e of the fifth declension (§ 98), and the loss of the 
original -d of the ablative (§ 49. e; cf. §§ 43. n. \ 92./, 214. a. n.). 

The relation of from includes separation, source, cause, agent, and comparison; 
that of with or by, accompaniment, instrument, means, manner, quality, and price; 
that of in or at, place, time, circumstance. This classification according to the 
original cases (to which, however, too great a degree of certainty should not be 
attached) 1 is set forth in the following table: — 

1 Thus the Ablative of Cause may be, at least in part, of Instrumental origin, and 
the Ablative Absolute appears to combine the Instrumental and the Locative. 



§§398-401] ABLATIVE OF SEPARATION 249 



Ablative Proper (from) 



II. Instrumental Ablative 
(with): 



1. Of Separation, Privation, and Want (§400). 

2. Of Source (participles of origin etc.) (§403). 

Tsevarative)- " ' ^ 3 * 0f Cause ( lab6r5 > ex silio, etc.) (§404). 

4. Of Agent (with ab after Passives) (§ 405). 

5. Of Comparison (than) (§406). 

1. Of Manner, Means, and Instrument (§408fr\). 

2. Of Object of the Deponents utor etc. (§ 410). 

3. Of Accompaniment (with cum) (§413). 

4. Of Degree of Difference (§ 414) . 

5. Of Quality (with Adjectives) (§415). 

6. Of Price and Exchange (§ 416). 

7. Of Specification (§418). 

8. Ablative Absolute (§419). 

III. Locative Ablative (in, ( 1. Of Place where (commonly with in) (§ 421). 
on, at): \ 2. Of Time and Circumstance (§423). 

399. The Ablative is used to denote the relations expressed in 

English by the prepositions from; in, at; with, by: — 

liberare metu, to deliver from fear. 

excultus doctrina, trained in learning. 

hoc ipso tempore, at this very time. I 

caecus avaritia, blind with avarice. 

occlsus gladio, slain by the sword. 



USES OF THE ABLATIVE PROPER 
Ablative of Separation 

400. Words signifying Separation or Privation are followed by 
the ablative. 

401. Verbs meaning to remove, set free, be absent, deprive, and 

want, take the Ablative (sometimes with ab or ex) : — 

oculis se privavit (Fin. v. 87), he deprived himself of eyes. 

omni Gallia Romanls interdicit (B. G. i. 46), he (Ariovistus) bars the Romans 

from the whole of Gaul. 
el aqua et igni interdlcitur (Veil. ii. 45), he is debarred the use of fire and 

water. ' [The regular formula of banishment.] 
voluptatibus carere (Cat. M. 7), to lack enjoyments. 
non egeo medicina (Lael. 10), I want no physic. 
levamur superstiti5ne, Hberamur mortis metu (Fin. i. 63), we are relieved 

from superstition, we are freed from fear of death. 
solutl a cupiditatibus (Leg. Agr. i. 27), freed from desires. 
multos ex his incommodis pecunia se liberasse (Verr. v. 23), that many have 

freed themselves by money from these inconveniences. 

For the Genitive with verbs of separation and want, see § 356. n. 



250 SYNTAX : CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§ 402, 403 

402. Verbs compounded with a, ab, de, ex, (1) take the simple 
Ablative when used figuratively ; but (2) when used literally to 
denote actual separation or motion, they usually require a prepo- 
sition (§ 426. 1) : — 

(1) cSnatu desistere (B. G. i. 8), to desist from the attempt 
desine communibus locis (Acad. ii. 80), quit commonplaces. 
abire magistrate, to leave one's office. 

abstinere iniuria, to refrain from wrong. 

(2) a propositS aberrare (Fin. v. 83), to wander from the point. 

de provincia decedere (Verr. ii. 48), to withdraw from one ] s province. 

ab iure abire (id. ii. 114), to go outside of the law. 

ex civitate excessere (B. G. vi. 8), they departed from the state. [But cf. 

finibus suis excesserant (id. iv. 18), they had left their own territory.'] 
a magno demissum nomen Iul5 ( Aen. i. 288) , a name descended (sent down) 
• from great lulus. 

For the Dative used instead of the Ablative of Separation, see § 381. For the Abla- 
tive of the actual place whence in idiomatic expressions, see §§ 427. 1, 428./. 

a. Adjectives denoting freedom and want are followed by the 
ablative : — 

urbs nuda praesidio (Att. vii. 13), the city naked of defence. 

imnmnis militia (Liv. i. 43),/ree of military service. 

plebs orba tribunis (Leg. iii. 9), the people deprived of tribunes. 

Note. — A preposition sometimes occurs: — 

a culpa vacuus (Sail. Cat. 14) , free from blame. 

liberi a deliciis (Leg. Agr. i. 27), free from luxuries. 

Messana ab his rebus vacua atque nuda est (Verr. iv. 3), Messana is empty and 
bare of these things. 
For the Genitive with adjectives of want, see § 349. a. 

Ablative of Source and Material 

403. The Ablative (usually with a preposition) is used to denote 
the Source from which anything is derived, or the Material of 
which it consists : — 

1. Source : — 
Rhenus oritur ex Lepontiis (B. G. iv. 10), the Rhine rises in (from) the 

country of the Lepontii. 
ab his sermo oritur (Lael. 5), the conversation is begun by (arises from) them. 
cuius rationis vim atque utilitatem ex illo caelesti Epictirl volumine accepi- 

mus (N. D. i. 43), of this reasoning we have learned the power and 

advantage from that divine book of Epicurus. 
snavitatem odorum qui afflarentur e floribus (Cat. M. 59), the sweetness of 

the odors which breathed from the flowers. 



§403] ABLATIVE OF SOURCE AND MATERIAL 251 

2. Material : — 
erat totus ex fraude et mendacio f actus (Clu. 72), he was entirely made up of 

fraud and falsehood. 
valvas magnificentiores, ex aur5 atque ebore perfections (Verr. iv. 124), 

more splendid doors, more finely wrought of gold and ivory. 
factum de cautibus antrum (Ov. M. i. 575), a cave formed of rocks. 
templum de marmore ponam (Georg. iii. 13), I HI build a temple of marble. 

Note 1. — In poetry the preposition is often omitted. 

Note 2. — The Ablative of Material is a development of the Ablative of Source. 
For the Genitive of Material, see § 344. 

a. Participles denoting birth or origin are followed by the Abla- 
tive of Source, generally without a preposition : — 1 

love natus et Maia (N. D. iii. 56), son of Jupiter and Mala. 
edite regibus (Hor. Od. i. 1. 1), descendant of kings. 
quo sanguine cretus (Aen. ii. 74), born of what blood. 
genitae Pandione (Ov. M. vi. 666), daughters of Pandion. 

Note 1. — A preposition (ab, de, ex) is usually expressed with pronouns, with the 
name of the mother, and often with that of other ancestors : — 

ex me hie natus non est sed ex fratre meo (Ter. Ad. 40), this is not my son, but 

my brother's (not born from me, etc.). 
cum ex utraque [uxore] films natus esset (De Or. i. 183), each wife having had 

a son (when a son had been born of each wife). 
Belus et omnes a. Belo (Aen. i. 730), Belus and all his descendants. 
Note 2. — Rarely, the place of birth is expressed by the ablative of source: as, — 
desideravit C. Fleginatem Placentia, A. Granium Puteolis (B. C. iii. 71), he lost Caius 
Fleginas of Placentia, Aulus Granius of Puteoli. 

Note 3. — The Roman tribe is regularly expressed by the ablative alone: as, — 
Q. Verrem Rdmilia (Verr. i. 23), Quintus Verres of the Romilian tribe. 

b. Some verbs may take the Ablative of Material without a prep- 
osition. Such are constare, consistere,, and contineri. 2 But with con- 
st&re, ex is more common : — 

domus amoenitas non aedificio sed silva constabat (Nep. Att. 13), the charm 

of the house consisted not in the buildings but in the woods. 
ex animo constamus et corpore (Fin. iv. 19), we consist of soul and body. 
vita corpore et spiritu continetur (Marc. 28), life consists of body and spirit. 

c. The Ablative of Material without a preposition is used with 
facere, fieri, and similar words, in the sense of do with, become of: — 

quid hoc homine faciatis (Verr. ii. 1. 42), what are you going to do with this 

man ? 
quid Tulliola mea fiet (Fam. xiv. 4. 3), what will become of my dear Tullia ? 
quid te futurum est (Verr. ii. 155), what will become of you ? 

i As natus, satus, editus, genitus, ortus, prognatus, generatus, cretus, creatus, oriundus. 
2 The ablative with consistere and contineri is probably locative in origin (cf. § 431), 



252 SYNTAX : CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§ 403, 404 

d. The Ablative of Material with ex, and in poetry without a 
preposition, sometimes depends directly on a noun : — 

non pauca pocula ex auro (Yerr. iv. 62), not a few cups of gold. 

scopulis pendentibus antrum (Aen. i. 166), a cave of hanging rocks. 
For Ablative of Source instead of Partitive Genitive, see § 346. c. 

Ablative of Cause 

404. The Ablative (with or without a preposition) is used to 
express Cause : — 1 

neglegentia plectimur (Lael. 85), we are chastised for negligence. 
gubernatoris ars utilitate non arte laudatur (Fin. i. 42), the pilot 1 s skill is 

praised for its service, not its skill. 
certis de causis, for cogent reasons. 

ex. vulnere aeger (Rep. ii. 38), disabled by (from) a wound. 
mare a sole lucet (Acad. ii. 105), the sea gleams in the sun (from the sun). 

a. The Ablative of Cause without a preposition is used with laboro 
(also with ex), exsilio, exsulto, triumpho, lacrimo, ardeo : — 

doleo te aliis malis laborare (Fam. iv. 3), I am sorry that you suffer with 

other ills. [Cf. ex aere alien5 laborare (B. C. iii. 22), to labor under 

debt (from another's money).] 
exsultare laetitia, triumphare gaudi5 coepit (Clu. 14), she began to exult in 

gladness, and triumph in joy. 
exsilui gaudio (Fam. xvi. 16), I jumped for joy. [Cf. lacrimo gaudiS (Ter. 

Ad. 409), I weep for joy .] 
ardere dolore et Ira (Att. ii. 19. 5), to be on fire with pain and anger. 
For gaudeo and glorior, see § 431. 

b. The motive which influences the mind of the person acting is 
expressed by the ablative of cause ; the object exciting the emotion 
often by ob 2 or propter with the accusative : — 

non ob praedam aut spoliandl cupidine (Tac. H. i. 63), not for booty or through 

lust of plunder. 
amicitia ex se et propter se expetenda (Fin. ii. 83), friendship must be sought 

of and for itself. 

Note. — But these constructions are often confused: as, — parere legibus propter 
metum (Par. 34), to obey the laws on account of fear. [Here metum is almost equiva- 
lent to "the terrors of the law," and hence propter is used, though the ablative would 
be more natural.] 

1 The cause, in the ablative, is originally source, as is shown by the use of ab, de, 
ex ; but when the accusative with ad, ob, is used, the idea of cause arises from nearness. 
Occasionally it is difficult to distinguish between cause and means (which is the old 
Instrumental case) or circumstance (which is either the Locative or the Instrumental). 

2 Originally a mercantile use : cf . ob decern minas, for the price of ten minx. 



§§ 404, 405] ABLATIVE OF AGENT 253 

c. The ablatives causa and gratia, for the sake of are used with a 
genitive preceding, or with a pronoun in agreement : — 

ea causa, on account of this; qua gratia (Ter. Eun. 99), for what purpose ? 
mea causa, for my sake ; inea gratia (Plaut.), for my sake. 
ex mea et rel ptiblieae causa, for my own sake and the republic's. 
praedictionis causa (N. D. iii. 5), by way of prophecy. 
exempli gratia (verbi gratia), for example. 
sui purgandi gratia, for the sake of clearing themselves. 
Note. — But gratia with possessives iu this use is rare. 

Ablative of Agent 

405. The Voluntary Agent after a passive verb is expressed by 
the Ablative with aorab: — 

laudatur ab his, culpatur ab illis (Hor. S. i. 2. 11), he is praised by these, 

blamed by those. 
ab anim5 tuo quidquid agitur id agitur a te (Tusc. i. 52), whatever is done by 

your soul is done by yourself. 
a filiis in indicium vocatus est (Cat. M. 22), he was brought to trial by his sons. 
cum a cuncto consessu. plausus esset multiplex datus (id. 64), when great 

applause had been given by the whole audience. 
ne virtus ab audacia vinceretur (Sest. 92), that valor might not be overborne 

by audacity. [Audacia is in a manner personified. ] 

Note 1. — This construction is developed from the Ablative of Source. The agent 
is conceived as the source or author of the action. 

Note 2. — The ablative of the agent (which requires a or ab) must be carefully- 
distinguished from the ablative of instrument, which has no preposition (§ 409). Thus 
— occisus gladio, slain by a sword; but, occisus ab hoste, slain by an enemy. 

Note 3. — The ablative of the agent is commonest with nouns denoting pe?*sons, but 
it occurs also with names of things or qualities when these are conceived as performing 
an action and so are partly or wholly personified, as in the last example under the rule. 

a. The ablative of the agent with ab is sometimes used after intran- 
sitive verbs that have a passive sense : — 

perire ab hoste, to be slain by an enemy. 

b. The personal agent, when considered as instrument or means, 
is often expressed by per with the accusative, or by opera with a 
genitive or possessive : — 

ab exploratoribus certior f actus est (B. G. i. 21), he was informed by scouts (in 

person). But, — 
per expl5ratores Caesar certior f actus est (id. i. 12), Ccesar was informed by 

(means of) scouts. 
elautae opera Neptuni (Plaut. Rud. 699), washed cleanby the services of Neptune. 
non mea opera evenit (Ter. Hec. 228), it hasn't happened through me (by my 

exertions). [Cf. eius opera, B. G. v. 27.] 



254 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§405-407 

Note 1. — The ablative of means or instrument is often used instead of the abla* 
tive of agent, especially in military phrases: as, — haec excubitSribus tenebantur 
(B. G. vii. 69), these (redoubts) were held by means of sentinels. 

Note 2. — An animal is sometimes regarded as the means or instrument, some- 
times as the agent. Hence both the simple ablative and the ablative with ab occur : — 
equo vehi, to ride on horseback (be conveyed by means of a horse). [Not ab equo.] 
clipeos a muribus esse derosos (Div. i. 99), that the shields toere gnawed by mice. 
For the Dative of the Agent with the Gerundive, see § 374. 

Ablative of Comparison 

406. The Comparative degree is often followed by the Abla- 
tive x signifying than : — 

Cat5 est CicerSne eloquentior, Cato is more eloquent than Cicero. 

quid nobis duobus laboriosius est (Mil. 5), what more burdened with toil than 

we two ? 
vilius argentum est aur5, virtiitibus aurum (Hor. Ep. i. 1. 52), silver is less 

precious than gold, gold than virtue. 

a. The idiomatic ablatives oplnione, spe, solito, dicto, aequo, credi- 
bill, and iusto are used after comparatives instead of a clause : — 
celerius opinidne (Fam. xiv. 23), faster than one would think. 
serius spe omnium (Liv. xxvi. 26), later than all hoped (than the hope of all), 
amnis solit5 citatior (id. xxiii. 19. 11), a stream swifter than its wont. 
gravius aequS (Sail. Cat. 51), more seriously than was right. 

407. The comparative may be followed by quam, than. When 
quam is used, the two things compared are put in the same case : 

non callidior es quam hie (Rose. Am. 49), you are not more cunning than he. 

c5nti5nibus accommodatior est quamiudiciis (Clu. 2), fitter for popular assem- 
blies than for courts. 

misericordia dlgnior quam contumelia (Pison. 32), more worthy of pity than of 
disgrace. 

a* The construction with quam is required when the first of the 

things compared is not in the Nominative or Accusative. 

Note 1. — There are several limitations on the use of the ablative of comparison, 
even when the first of the things compared is in the nominative or accusative. Thus 
the quam construction is regularly used (1) when the comparative is in agreement 
with a genitive, dative, or ablative : as, — senex est eo meliore condicione quam adules- 
cens (Cat. M. 68), an old man is in this respect in a better position than a young man; 
and (2) when the second member of the comparison is modified by a clause : as, — minor 
fuit aliquanto is qui primus fabulam dedit quam ei qui, etc. (Brut. 73), he who first 
presented a play was somewhat younger than those who, etc. 

1 This is a branch of the Ablative of Separation. The object with which anything 
is compared is the starting-point from which we reckon. Thus, " Cicero is eloquent " ; 
but, starting from him, we come to Cato, who is " more so fchan he." 



§407] ABLATIVE OE COMPARISON 255 

Note 2. — The poets sometimes use the ablative of comparison where the prose 
construction requires quam: as, — pane egeo iam mellitis potiore placentis (Hor. Ep. 
i. 10. 11), I now want bread better than honey-cakes. 

Note 3. — Relative pronouns having a definite antecedent never take quam in this 
construction, but always the ablative: as, — rex erat Aeneas nobis, quo iustior alter 
nee, etc. (Aen. i. 544), JEneas was our king, than whom no other [was] more righteous. 

b. In sentences expressing or implying a general negative the 
ablative (rather than quam) is the regular construction when the first 
member of the comparison is in the nominative or accusative : — 

nihil detestabilius dedecore, nihil foedius servitute (Phil. iii. 36), nothing is 

more dreadful than disgrace, nothing viler than slavery. 
neminem esse cariorem te (Att. x. 8 a. 1), that no one is dearer than you. 

c. After the comparatives plus, minus, amplius, longius, without 
quam, a word of measure or number is often used with no change in 
its case : — 

plus septingenti capti (Liv. xli. 12), more than seven hundred were taken. 

[Nominative.] 
plus tertia parte interfecta (B. G. iii. 6), more than a third part being slain. 

[Ablative Absolute.] 
aditus in latitudinem non amplius ducentorum pedum relinquebatur (id. ii. 

29), an approach of not more than two hundred feet in width was left. 

[Genitive of Measure: § 345. &.] 

Note. — The noun takes the case required by the context, without reference to the 
comparative, which is in a sort of apposition : " seven hundred were taken [and] more." 

d. Alius is sometimes followed by the ablative in poetic and collo- 
quial use ; in formal prose it is followed by ac (atque), et, more rarely 
by nisi, quam : — 

nee quicquam aliud libertate communi (Fam. xi. 2), nothing else than the com- 
mon liberty. 

alius Lysippo (Hor. Ep. ii. 1. 240), another than Lysippus. 

num aliud videtur esse ac meoruni bonorum direptio (Dom. 51), does it seem 
anything different from the plundering of my property ? 

erat historia nihil aliud nisi annalium confectio (De Or. ii. 52), history was 
nothing else but a compiling of records. 

e. The comparative of an adverb is usually followed by quam, rarely 
by the ablative except in poetry : — 

tempus te citius quam oratiS deficeret (Rose. Am. 89), time would fail you 

sooner than words. But, — 
cur ollvum sanguine viperino cautius vitat (Hor. Od. i. 8. 9), why does he shun 

oil more carefully than viper's blood ? 

Note. — Prepositions meaning before or beyond (as ante, prae, praeter, supra) are 
sometimes used with a comparative: as, — scel«re ante aliSs immanior omnis (Aen. i. 
347), more monstrous in crime than all other men. 



256 SYNTAX : CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§ 408, 409 



USES OF THE ABLATIVE AS INSTRUMENTAL 

408. Means, Instrument, Manner, and Accompaniment are denoted by the Instru- 
mental Ablative (see § 398), but some of these uses more commonly require a prepo- 
sition. As they all come from one source (the old Instrumental Case) no sharp line 
can be drawn between them, and indeed the Romans themselves can hardly have 
thought of any distinction. Thus, in omnibus precious orabant, they entreated with 
every [kind of] prayer, the ablative, properly that of means, cannot be distinguished 
from that of manner. 

Ablative of Means or Instrument 

409. The Ablative is used to denote the means or instrument 
of an action : — 

certantes pugnis, calcibus, unguibus, morsu denique (Tusc. v. 77), fighting 
with fists, heels, nails, and even teeth. 

cum pugnis et calcibus concisus esset (Verr. iii. 56), when he had been pum- 
melled with their fists and heels. 

mels laborious interitu rem piiblicam liberavi (Sull. 33), by my toils I have 
saved the state from ruin. 

multae istarum arborum mea manu sunt satae (Cat. M. 59), many of those 
trees were set out with my own hands. 

vi victa vis, vel potius oppressa virtu te audacia est (Mil. 30), violence was 
overcome by violence, or rather, boldness was put down by courage. 

a. The Ablative of Means is used with verbs and adjectives of 
filling, abounding ', and the like : — 

Deus bonis omnibus explevit mundum (Tim. 3), God has filled the world with 

all good things. 
aggere et cratibus fossas explent (B. G. vii. 86), they Jill up the ditches with 

earth and fascines. 
totum montem hominibus complevit (id. i. 24), he filled the whole mountain 

with men. 
opimus praeda (Verr. ii. 1. 132), rich with spoils. 

vita plena et conferta voluptatibus (Sest.23), life filled and crowded with delights. 
Forum Appi differtum nautis (Hor. S. i. 5. 4), Forum Appii crammed with 

bargemen. 

Note. — In poetry the Genitive is often used with these words. Compleo and impleo 
sometimes take the genitive in prose (cf . § 356) ; so regularly plenus and (with personal 
nouns) completus and refertus (§ 349. a): — 

omnia plena luctus et maeroris fuerunt (Sest. 128), everything was full of grief 

and mourning. 
ollam denariorum implere (Fam. ix. 18), to fill a pot with money. [Here evidently 

colloquial, otherwise rare in Cicero.] 
convivium vicinorum compleo (Cat. M. 46, in the mouth of Cato), I fill up the ban- 
quet with my neighbors. 
cum completus mercatorum career esse* (Verr. v. 147), when the prison was full of 
traders. 



§§ 410, 411] ABLATIVE OF MEANS OR INSTRUMENT 257 

410. The deponents utor, fruor, fungor, potior, vescor, with several 

of their compounds, 1 govern the Ablative : — 

utar vestra benignitate (Arch. 18), 1 will avail myself of your kindness. 

ita mihi salva re publica vobiscum perfrui liceat (Cat. iv. 11), so may I enjoy 

with you the state secure and prosperous. 
fungi inanl munere (Aen. vi. 885), to perform an idle service. 
aur5 heros potitur (Ov. M. vii. 156), the hero takes the gold. 
lacte et ferlna came vescebantur (lug. 89), they fed on milk and game. 

Note. — This is properly an Ablative of Means {instrumental) and the verbs are 
really in the middle voice (§ 156. a). Thus utor with the ablative signifies I employ 
myself (or avail myself) by means of, etc. But these earlier meanings disappeared 
from the language, leaving the construction as we find it. 

a. Potior sometimes takes the Genitive, as always in the phrase 
potiri rerum, to get control or be master of affairs (§ 357. a) : — 

totlus Galliae sese potlii posse sperant (B. G. i. 3), they hope they can get 
possession of the whole of Gaul. 

Note 1. — In early Latin, these verbs are sometimes transitive and take the 
accusative : — 

functus est officium (Ter. Ph. 281), he performed the part, etc. 
ille patria potitur commoda (Ter. Ad. 871), he enjoys his ancestral estate. 
Note 2. — The Gerundive of these verbs is used personally in the passive as if the 
verb were transitive (but cf . § 500. 3) : as, — Heraclio omnia utenda ac possidenda tra- 
diderat (Verr. ii. 46), he had given over everything to Heraclius for his use and posses- 
sion (to be used and possessed). 

411. Opus and usus, signifying need, take the Ablative: — 2 

magistratibus opus est (Leg. iii. 5), there is need of magistrates. 
nunc viribus usus (Aen. viii. 441), now there is need of strength. 
Note. — The ablative with usus is not common in classic prose. 
a. With opus the ablative of a perfect participle is often found, 
either agreeing with a noun or used as a neuter abstract noun : — 
opus est tua exprompta malitia atque astutia (Ter. And. 723), I must have 

your best cunning and cleverness set to ivork. 
properato opus erat (cf. Mil. 49), there was need of haste. 
Note 1. — So rarely with usus in comedy: as, — quid istis usust conscriptis (PI. 
Bacch. 749), what's the good of having them in writing? 

Note 2. — The omission of the noun gives rise to complex constructions : as, — quid 
opus factost (cf. B. G. i. 42), what must be done? [Cf. quid opus est fieri? with qu5 
facto opus est ?] 

1 These are abutor, deutor (very rare), defungor, defruor, perfruor, perfungor. 

2 This construction is properly an instrumental one, in which opus and usus mean 
work and service, and the ablative expresses that with which the work is performed 
or the service rendered. The noun usus follows the analogy of the verb utor, and the 
ablative with opus est appears to be an extension of that with usus est. 



258 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§411-413 

b. Opus is often found in the predicate, with the thing needed in 
the nominative as subject: — 

dux nobis et auctor opus est (Fam. ii. 6. 4), we need a chief and responsible 
adviser (a chief, etc., is necessary for us). 

si quid ipsl opus esset (B. G. i. 34), if he himself wanted anything (if any- 
thing should be necessary for him). 

quae opus sunt (Cato R. R. 14. 3), things which are required. 

Ablative of Manner 

412. The Manner of an action is denoted by the Ablative ; usu- 
ally with cum, unless a limiting adjective is used with the noun : 

cum celeritate venit, he came with speed. But, — 
summa celeritate venit, he came with the greatest speed. 
quid refert qua me ratione cogatis (Lael. 26), what difference does it make in 
what way you compel me ? 

a. But cum is often used even when the ablative has a limiting 
adjective: — 

quanto id cum periculS fecerit (B. G. i. 17), at what risk he did this. 
non minore cum taedi5 recubant (Plin. Ep. ix. 17. 3), they recline with no less 
weariness. 

b. With such words of manner as modo, pacto, ratione, ritu, vl, via, 

and with stock expressions which have become virtually adverbs (as 
silentio, hire, iniuria), cum is not used : — 

apis Matinae more modoque carmina fingo (Hor. Od. iv. 2. 28), in the style 
and manner of a Matinian bee I fashion songs. 

Note. — So in poetry the ablative of manner often omits cum: as, — insequitur cu- 
muld aquae mons (Aen. i. 105), a mountain of water follows in a mass, [Cf. murmure . 
(id. i. 124) ; rimis (id. i. 123).] 

Ablative of Accompaniment 

413. Accompaniment is denoted by the Ablative, regularly with 

cum: — 

cum coniugibus ac liberis (Att. viii. 2. 3), with wives and children. 

cum fundit5ribus sagittariisque flumen transgress! (B. G. ii. 19), having 

crossed the river with the archers and stingers. 
quae supplicatio si cum ceteris conferatur (Cat. iii. 15), if this thanksgiving 

be compared with others. 
quae [lex] esse cum tel5 vetat (Mil. 11), the law which forbids [one] to go 

armed (be witb a weapon), 
si secum suos eduxerit (Cat. i. 30), if he leads out with him his associates. 

[For secum, see § 144. b. n. 1 .] 



§§ 413, 414] ABLATIVE OF DEGREE OF DIFFERENCE 259 

a. The ablative is used without cum in some military phrases, and 
here and there by early writers : — 

subsequebatur omnibus copiis (B. G. ii. 19), he followed close with all his 

forces. [But also cum omnibus copiis, id. i. 26.] 
hoc praesidio profectus est (Verr. ii. 1. 86), with this force he set out. 
Note. — Misceo and iungo, with some of their compounds, and confundo take either 
(1) the Ablative of Accompaniment with or without cum, or (2) sometimes the Dative 
(mostly poetical or late) : — 

mixta dolore voluptas (B. Al. 56), pleasure mingled with pain. 

cuius animumcum suo misceat (Lael. 81), whose soul he may mingle with his own. 

fletumque cruori miscuit (Ov. M. iv. 110), and mingled tears with blood. 

Caesar eas cohortis cum exercitu suo coniunxit (B. C. i. 18), Csesar united those 

cohorts with his own army. 
aer coniunctus terris (Lucr. v. 562), air united with earth. 

humano capiti cervicem equinam iimgere (Hor. A. P. 1), to join to a human head 
a horse's neck. 

b. Words of Contention and the like require cum : — 
armis cum hoste certare (Off. iii. 87), to fight with the enemy in arms. 
libenter haec cum Q. Catulo disputarem (Manil. 66), I should gladly discuss 

these matters with Quintus Catulus. 
Note. — But words of contention may take the Dative in poetry (see § 368. a). 

Ablative of Degree of Difference 

414. With Comparatives and words implying comparison the 
ablative is used to denote the Degree of Difference : — 
quinque milibus passuum distat, it is five miles distant. 
a milibus passuum circiter duobus (B. G. v. 32), at a distance of about two 

miles. [For a as an adverb, see § 433. 3.] 
aliquot ante annis (Tusc. i. 4), several years before. 
aliquantS post suspexit (Rep. vi. 9), a while after, he looked up. 
multo me vigilare acrius (Cat. i. 8), that I watch much more sharply. 
nihilS erat ipse Cyclops quam aries prudentior (Tusc. v. 115), the Cyclops 

himself was not a whit wiser than the ram. 

a. The ablatives quo . . . eo (hoc), and quanto . . . tanto, are used 
correlatively with comparatives, like the English the . . . the 1 : — 
quo minus cupiditatis, eo plus auctoritatis (Liv. xxiv. 28), the less greed, the 

more weight (by what the less, by that the more). 
quant5 erat gravior oppugn atio, tant5 crebriores litterae mittebantur (B. G. 
v. 45), the severer the siege was, the more frequently letters were sent. 

1 In this phrase the is not the definite article but a pronominal adverb, being the 
Anglo-Saxon thy, the instrumental case of the pronoun thset, that. This pronoun is 
used both as relative (by which, by how much) and as demonstrative {by that, by so 
much). Thus the . . . the corresponds exactly to qu5 . . . eo. 



260 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§414,415 

Note. — To this construction are doubtless to be referred all cases of quo and e5 
(hoc) with a comparative, even when they have ceased to be distinctly felt as degree 
of difference and approach the Ablative of Cause : — 

eSque me minus paenitet (N. D. i. 8), and for that reason I regret less, etc. (by so 

much the less I regret) . 
haec eo facilius faciebant, quod (B. G. iii. 12), this they did the more easily for this 
reason, because, etc. [Cf. hoc maiore spe, quod (id. iii. 9).] 

b. The Ablative of Comparison (§ 406) and the Ablative of Degree 
of Difference are sometimes used together with the same adjective : — 

paulo minus ducentis (B. C. iii. 28), a little less than two hundred. 
patria, quae mihi vita mea multS est carior (Cat. i. 27), my country, which 
is much dearer to me than life. 

But the construction with quam is more common. 

Ablative of Quality 

415. The quality of a thing is denoted by the Ablative with an 
adjective or genitive modifier. 

This is called the Descriptive Ablative or Ablative of Quality : — 1 
animo meliore sunt gladiatores (Cat. ii. 26), the gladiators are of a better 

mind. 
quae cum esset civitas aequissim5 iure ac foedere (Arch. 6), as this was a 

city with perfectly equal constitutional rights. 
mulierem eximia pulchritudine (Verr. ii. 1. 64), a woman of rare beauty. 
Aristoteles, vir summ5 ingeni5, scientia, copia (Tusc. i. 7), Aristotle, a man of 

the greatest genius, learning, and gift of expression. 
de Domitio dixit versum Graecum eadem sententia (Deiot. 25), concerning 

JDomitius he recited a Greek line of the same tenor. 

Note. — The Ablative of Quality (like the Genitive of Quality, § 345) modifies a sub- 
stantive by describing it. It is therefore equivalent to an adjective, and may be either 
attributive or predicate. In this it differs from other ablatives, which are equivalent 
to adverbs. 

a. In expressions of quality the Genitive or the Ablative may 
often be used indifferently ; but physical qualities are oftener denoted 
by the Ablative (cf . § 345. n.) : — 

capillo sunt promisso (B. G. v. 14), they have long hair. 

ut capite operto sit (Cat. M. 34), to have his head covered (to be with covered 

head), 
quam fuit inbecillus P. African! fllius, quam tenui aut nulla potius valetudine 
(id. 35), how weak was the son of Africanus, of what feeble health, or 
rather none at all ! 

1 It was originally instrumental and appears to have developed from accompani- 
ment (§ 413) and manner (§ 412) . 



§§416,417] ABLATIVE OF PRICE 261 

Ablative of Price 

416. The price of a thing is put in the Ablative : — 

agrura vendidit sestertium sex milibus, he sold the land for 6000 sesterces. 
Antonius regna addlxit pecunia (Phil. vii. 15), Antony sold thrones for money. 
logos rldiculos : quis cena poscit (PI. Stich. 221), jokes : who wants them for 

(at the price of) a dinner f 
magno illl ea cunctatio stetit (Liv. ii. 36), that hesitation cost him dear. 

Note. — To this head is to be referred the Ablative of the Penalty (§ 353. 1). 

417. Certain adjectives of quantity are used in the Genitive to 

denote indefinite value. Such are magni, parvi, tanti, quanti, pluris, 

minoris : — 

mea magni interest, it is of great consequence to me. 

illud parvi refert (Manil. 18), this is of small account. 

est mihi tanti (Cat. ii. 15), it is worth the price (it is of so much). 

Verresne tibi tanti fuit (Verr. ii. 1. 77), was Verres of so much account to 

you f 
tantone minoris decumae venierunt (id. iii. 106), were the tithes sold for so 

much less f 
ut te redimas captum quam queas minimo : si nequeas paululo, at quanti queas 

(Ter. Eun. 74), to ransom yourself when captured, at the cheapest rate 

you can; if you can 1 1 for a small sum, then at any rate for what you can. 

Note. — These are really Genitives of Quality (§ 345. b). 

a. The genitive of certain colorless nouns is used to denote indefi- 
nite value. Such are nihil! (nili), nothing; assis, a farthing (rare) ; 
flocci (a lock of wool), a strata : — 

non flocci facio (Att. xiii. 50), I care not a straw. [Colloquial.] 
utinam ego istuc abs te factum nili penderem (Ter. Eun. 94), O that I cared 
nothing for this being done by you ! [Colloquial.] 

b. With verbs of exchanging, either the thing taken or the thing 
given in exchange may be in the Ablative of Price. Such are muto, 
commiito, permuto, verto : — 

fidem suam et religionem pecunia commutare (Clu. 129), to barter his faith 

and conscience for money. 
exsilium patria sede nmtavit (Q. C. iii. 7. 11), he exchanged his native land 

for exile (he took exile in exchange for his native land), 
velox saepe Lucretilem miitat Lycaeo Faunus (Hor. Od. i. 17. 1), nimble 

Faunus often changes Lycozus for Lucretilis. [He takes Lucretilis at 

the price o/Lycaeus, i.e. he goes from Ly casus to Lucretilis.] 
vertere funeribus triumphos (id. i. 35. 4), to change the triumph to the funeral 

train (exchange triumphs for funerals). [Poetical.] 



262 SYNTAX : CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§ 417, 418 

Note. — With verbs of exchanging cum is often used, perhaps with a different con- 
ception of the action: as, — aries . . . cum croceo mutabit vellera luto (Eel. iv. 44), the 
ram shall change his fleece for [one dyed with] the yellow safron. 

c. With verbs of buying and selling the simple Ablative of Price 
must be used, except in the case of tanti, quanti, pluris, minoris : — 
quanti earn emit? vili . . . quot minis? quadraginta minis (PL Epid. 51), 
what did he buy her for f Cheap. For how many mince ? Forty. 

Ablative of Specification 

418. The Ablative of Specification denotes that in respect to 

which anything is or is done : — 

virtute praecedunt (B. G. i. 1), they excel in courage. 
claudus altero pede (Nep. Ages. 8), lame of one foot. 
lingua haesitantes, vdee absoni (De Or. i. 115), hesitating in speech, harsh in 

voice. 
sunt enim homines non re sed nomine (Off. i. 105), for they are men not in 

fact, but in name. 
maior natu, older; minor natu, younger (cf. § 131. c). 
paulum aetate progress! (Cat. M. 33), somewhat advanced in age. 
corpore senex esse poterit, animd numquam erit (id. 38), he may be an old man 

in body, he never will be [old] at heart. 

a. To this head are to be referred many expressions where the abla- 
tive expresses that in accordance with which anything is or is done : — 

me5 iure, with perfect right; but, me5 modo, in my fashion. 

mea sententia, in my opinion; but also more formally, ex mea sententia. 

[Here the sense is the same, but the first ablative is specification, the 

second source.] 
propinquitate coniunctos atque natura (Lael. 50), closely allied by kindred and 

nature. [Here the ablative is not different in sense from those above, 

but no doubt is a development of means. ] 
qui vincit viribus (id. 55), who surpasses in strength. [Here it is impossible 

to tell whether viribus is the means of the superiority or that in respect 

to which one is superior.] 

Note. — As the Romans had no such categories as we make, it is impossible to 
classify all uses of the ablative. The ablative of specification (originally instru- 
mental) is closely akin to that of manner, and shows some resemblance to means and 
cause. 

For the Supine in -u as an Ablative of Specification, see § 510. 

b. The adjectives dignus and indignus take the ablative : — 

vir patre, avo, mai5ribus suis dignissimus (Phil. iii. 25), a man most worthy 

of his father, grandfather, ayid ancestors. 
te omni hondre indignissimum iudicavit (Vat. 39), he judged you entirely 

unworthy of every honor. 



§§ 418, 419] ABLATIVE ABSOLUTE 263 

Note 1. — So the verb dignor in poetry and later prose : as, — haud equidem tali me 
dignor honore (Aen. i. 335), I do not deem myself worthy of such an honor. 

Note 2. — Dignus and indignus sometimes take the genitive in colloquial usage and 
in poetry : — 

curam dignissimam tuae virtutis (Balbus in Att. viii. 15), care most worthy of 

your noble character. 
dignus salutis (Plaut. Trin. 1153), worthy of safety. 

magnorum haud umquam indignus avorum (Aen. xii. 649), never unworthy of my 
great ancestors. 

Ablative Absolute 

419. A noun or pronoun, with a participle in agreement, may 

be put in the Ablative to define the time or circumstarices of an 

action. This construction is called the Ablative Absolute: — x 

Caesar, acceptis litteris, nuntium mittit (B. G. v. 46), having received the 

letter, Ccesar sends a messenger (the letter having been received), 
quibus rebus c5gnitis Caesar apud milites contionatur (B. C. i. 7), having 

learned this, Ccesar makes a speech to the soldiers. 
fugatd omni equitatu (B. G. vii. 68), all the cavalry being put to flight. 
interfecto Indutiomaro (id. vi. 2), upon the death of Indutiomarus. 
nondum hieme cdnfecta in finis Nerviorum contendit (id. vi. 3), though the 

winter was not yet over, he hastened into the territory of the Nervii. 
compressi [sunt] conatus nullo tumultu publice concitat5 (Cat. i. 11), the 

attempts were put down without exciting any general alarm. 
ne vobis quidem omnibus re etiam turn probata (id. ii. 4), since at that time 
the facts were not yet proved even to all of you. 
Note. — The ablative absolute is an adverbial modifier of the predicate. It is, 
however, not grammatically dependent on any word in the sentence: hence its name 
absolute (absolutus, i.e. free or unconnected). A substantive in the ablative absolute 
very seldom denotes a person or thing elsewhere mentioned in the same clause. 

a. An adjective, or a second noun, may take the place of the parti- 
ciple in the Ablative Absolute construction : — 2 

exigua parte aestatis reliqua (B. G. iv. 20), when but a small part of the sum- 
mer was left (a small part of the summer remaining). 

L. Domitio Ap. Claudi5 cSnsulibus (id. v. 1), in the consulship of Lucius Domi- 
tius and Appius Claudius (Lucius Domitius and Appius Claudius [being] 
consuls). [The regular way of expressing a date, see § 424. g.] 

nil desperandum TeucrS duce et auspice Teucr5 (Hor. Od. i. 7. 27), there 
should be no despair under Teucer's leadership and auspices (Teucer 
being leader, etc.). 

1 The Ablative Absolute is perhaps of instrumental origin. It is, however, some- 
times explained as an outgrowth of the locative, and in any event certain locative 
constructions (of place and time) must have contributed to its development. 

2 The present participle of esse, wanting in Latin (§ 170. 6), is used in Sanskrit and 
Greek as in English. 



264 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§419,420 

b. A phrase or clause, used substantively, sometimes occurs as 
ablative absolute with a participle or an adjective : — 

incert5 quid peterent (Liv. xxviii. 36), as it was uncertain what they should 

aim at (it being uncertain, etc.). 
compertS vanum esse formidinem (Tac. Ann. i. 66), when it was found that 

the alarm was groundless. 
cur praetereatur dem5nstratd (Inv. ii. 34), when the reason for omitting it has 

been explained (why it is passed by being explained). 
Note. — This construction is very rare except in later Latin. 

c. A participle or an adjective is sometimes used adverbially in 
the ablative absolute without a substantive : — 

cSnsulto (Off. i. 27), on purpose (the matter having been deliberated on), 
mini optato veneris (Att. xiii. 28. 3), you will come in accordance with my 

wish. 
serenS (Liv. xxxi. 12), under a clear sky (it [being] clear), 
nee auspicat5 nee Htato (id. v. 38), with no auspices or favorable sacrifice. 
tranquillo, ut aiunt, quilibet gubernator est (Sen. Ep. 85. 34), in good 

weather, as they say, any man 's a pilot. 

420. The Ablative Absolute often takes the place of a Sub- 
ordinate Clause. 

Thus it may replace — 

1. A Temporal Clause (§ 541 ft'.) : — 

patre interfecto, [his] father having been killed. [This corresponds to cum 
pater interfectus esset, when his father had been killed.] 

recentibus sceleris eius vestigiis (Q. C. vii. 1. 1), while the traces of the crime 
were fresh. [Cf. dum recentia sunt vestigia.] 

2. A Causal Clause (§ 540) : — 

at el qui Alesiae obsidebantur praeterita die qua auxilia suorum exspecta- 
verant, cSnsumpto omni frumentd, concilio coacto consultabant (B. G. 
vii. 77), but those who were under siege at Alesia, since the time, etc., 
had expired, and their grain had been exhausted, calling a council (see 5 
below), consulted together. [Cf. cum dies praeterisset, etc.] 

Dareus, desperata pace, ad reparandas viiis intendit animum (Q. C. iv. 6. 1), 
Darius, since he despaired of peace, devoted his energies to recruiting 
his forces. [Cf. cum pacem desperaret.] 

3. A Concessive Clause (§ 527) : — 

at eo repiignante fiebat (consul), immo vero eo fiebat magis (Mil. 34), but 

though he (Clodius) opposed, he (Milo) was likely to be elected consul; 

nay, rather, etc. 
turribus excitatis, tamen has altitudo puppium ex barbaris navibus supe- 

rabat (B. G. iii. 14), although towers had been built up, still the high 

sterns of the enemy'' s ships rose above them. 



§§420-422] ABLATIVE OF PLACE 265 

4. A Conditional Clause (§ 521) : — 

occurrebat el, mancam et debilem praeturam futuram suam, c5nsule Milone 
(Mil. 25), it occurred to him that his prcetorship would be maimed and 
feeble, if Milo were consul, [si Milo consul esset.] 

qua (regione) subacta licebit decurrere in ilhid mare (Q. C. ix. 3. 13), if this 
region is subdued, we shall be free to run down into that sea. 

qua quidem detracta (Arch. 28), if this be taken away. 

5. A Clause of Accompanying Circumstance : — 

ego haec a Chrysogono mea sponte, remotS Sex. RosciS, quaero (Rose. Am. 
130), of my own accord, without reference to Sextus Roscius (Sextus 
Roscius being put aside), I ask these questions of Chrysogonus. 

nee imperante nee sciente nee praesente domino (Mil. 29), without their master 1 s 
giving orders, or knowing it, or being present. 

Note. — As the English Nominative Absolute is far less common than the Abla- 
tive Absolute in Latin, a change of form is generally required in translation. Thus 
the present participle is oftenest to be rendered in English by a relative clause with 
when or while; and the perfect passive participle by the perfect active participle. 
These changes may be seen in the following example : — 

At HE, intermisso spatio, imprudenti- But they, having paused a space, while 

bus nostris atque occupdtis in munitione our men were unaware and busied in for- 
castrorum, subito se ex silvis eiecerunt ; tifying the camp, suddenly threw them- 
impetuque in eos facto qui erant in sta- selves out of the woods ; then, making an 
tione pro castris conlocati, acriter pug- attack upon those who were on guard in 
naverunt ; dudbusque missis subsidio front of the camp, they fought fiercely ; 
cohortibus a, Caesare, cum hae (perexi- and, though two cohorts had been sent by 
gud intermisso loci spatio inter se) con- Caesar as reinforcements, after these had 
stitissent, novo gen ere pugnae perterritis taken their position (leaving very little 
nostris, per medios audacissime perrupe- space of ground between them), as our 
runt seque inde incolumis receperunt. — men were alarmed by the strange kind 
Caesar, B. G. v. 15. of fighting, they dashed most daringly 

through the midst of them and got off 
safe. 

For the Ablative with Prepositions, see § 220. 



THE ABLATIVE AS LOCATIVE 
Ablative of Place 

421. The Locative Case was originally used (literally) to denote the place where 
and (figuratively) to denote the time when (a development from the idea of place) . 
But this case was preserved only in names of towns and a few other words, and the 
place where is usually denoted by the Ablative. In this construction the Ablative was, 
no doubt, used at first without a preposition, but afterwards it became associated in 
most instances with the preposition in. 

422. In expressions of Time and Place the Latin shows a 
variety of idiomatic constructions (Ablative, Accusative, and Loc- 
ative), which are systematically treated in § 423 ff. 



266 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§423,424 

TIME AND PLACE 
Time 

423. Time when, or within which, is expressed by the Abla- 
tive ; time how long by the Accusative. 

1. Ablative : — 

constitute die, on the appointed day ; prima luce, at daybreak. 
quota hora, at what o'clock? tertia vigilia, in the third watch. 
tribus proximis annls (lug. 11), within the last three years. 
diebus viginti qulnque aggerem exstriixerunt (B. G. vii. 24), within twenty- 
five days they finished building a mound. 

2. Accusative : — 

dies continuos trlginta, for thirty days together. 

cum triduum iter fecisset (B. G. ii. 16), when he had marched three days. 

Note. — The Ablative of Time is locative in its origin (§ 421) ; the Accusative is the 
same as that of the extent of space (§ 425) . 

424. Special constructions of time are the following : — 

a. The Ablative of time within which sometimes takes in, and the 
Accusative of time how long per, for greater precision : — 

in diebus proximis decern (lug. 28), within the next ten days. 
ludi per decern dies (Cat. iii. 20), games for ten days. 

b. Duration of time is occasionally expressed by the Ablative : — . 
milites qulnque horis proelium sustinuerant (B. C. i. 47), the men had sus- 
tained the fight five hours. 

Note. — In this use the period of time is regarded as that within which the act is 
done, and it is only implied that the act lasted through the period. Cf. inter annos 
quattnordecim (B. G. i. 36) , for fourteen years. 

c. Time during which or within which may be expressed by the 
Accusative or Ablative of a noun in the singular, with an ordinal 
numeral : — 

quinto die, within [just] four days (lit. on the fifth day). [The Romans 

counted both ends, see § 631. d.] 
regnat iam sextum annum, he has reigned going on six years. 

d. Many expressions have in Latin the construction of time when, 
where in English the main idea is rather of place : — 

pugna CannensI (or, apud Cannas), in the fight at Cannes. 
ludls R 5 mams, at the Roman games. 
omnibus Gallicis bellls, in all the Gallic wars. 



§§ 424, 425] TIME AND PLACE 267 

e. In many idiomatic expressions of time, the Accusative with ad, 
in, or sub is used. Such are the following : — 

supplicatio decreta est in Kalendas Ianuarias, a thanksgiving was voted for 

the first of January. 
convenerunt ad diem, they assembled on the [appointed] day. 
ad vesperum, till evening ; sub vesperum, towards evening. 
sub idem tempus, about the same time ; sub noctem, at nightfall. 

f. Distance of time before or after anything is variously expressed : 

post (ante) tres annos, post tertium annum, tres post annos, tertium post 
annum, tribus post annis, tertio post anno (§ 414), three years after. 

tribus annis (tertio anno) post exsilium (postquam eiectus est), three years 
after his exile. 

his tribus proximis annis, within the last three years. 

paucis annis, a few years hence. 

abhinc annos tres (tribus annis), ante hos tres annos, three years ago. 

triennium est cum (tres anni sunt cum), it is three years since. 

octavo mense quam, the eighth month after (see § 434. n.). 

g. In Dates the phrase ante diem (a. d.) with an ordinal, or the 
ordinal alone, is followed by an accusative, like a preposition ; and 
the phrase itself may also be governed by a preposition. 

The year is expressed by the names of the consuls in the ablative 
absolute, usually without a conjunction (§ 419. a): — 

is dies erat a. d. v. Kal. Apr. (qumturn Kalendas Aprills) L. Pisone A. Gablnio 

consulibus (B. G. i. 6), that day was the 6th before the calends of April 

(March 28), in the consulship of Piso and Gabinius. 
in a. d. v. Kal. Nov. (Cat. i. 7), to the 5th day before the calends of November 

(Oct. 28). 
xv. Kal. Sextilis, the 15th day before the calends of August (July 18). [Fall 

form : quinto decimo die ante Kalendas.] 

For the Roman Calendar, see § 631. 

Extent of Space 

425. Extent of Space is expressed by the Accusative : — 

fossas quindecim pedes latas (B. G. vii 72), trenches fifteen feet broad. 

progressus milia passuum circiter duodecim (id. v. 9), having advanced about 
twelve miles. 

in omnl vita sua quemque a recta conscientia transversum unguem non 
oportet discedere (quoted in Att. xiii. 20), in all one's life, one should 
not depart a naiVs breadth from straightforward conscience. 

Note. — This Accusative denotes the object through or over which the action takes 
place, and is kindred with the Accusative of the End of Motion (§ 427. 2). 



268 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§425,426 

a. Measure is often expressed by the Genitive of Quality (§ 345. b) \ 
vallum duodecim pedum (B. G. vii. 72), a rampart of twelve feet (in height). 

b. Distance when considered as extent of space is put in the Accu- 
sative; when considered as degree of difference, in the Ablative 
(§414): — 

milia passuum tria ab eorum castris castra ponit (B. G. i. 22), he pitches his 

camp three miles from their camp. 
qulnque dierum iter abest (Liv. xxx. 29), it is distant Jive days' 1 march. 
triginta milibus passuum infra eum locum (B. G. vi. 35), thirty miles below 

that place (below by thirty miles). 

Relations of Place 

426. Relations of Place 1 are expressed as follows: — 

1. The place from which, by the Ablative with ab, de, or ex. 

2. The place to which (or end of motion), by the Accusative with 
ad or in. 

3. The place where, by the Ablative with in (Locative Ablative). 

Examples are : — 

1. Place from which : — 

a septentrione, from the north. 

cum a vobis discessero (Cat. M. 79), when I leave you. 
de provincia decedere, to come away from one" 1 s province. 
de monte, down from the mountain. 

negotiator ex Africa (Yerr. ii. 1. 14), a merchant from Africa. 
ex Britannia obsides miserunt (B. G. iv. 38), they sent hostages from Britain. 
Mosa profluit ex monte Vosego (id. iv. 10), the Meuse (flows from) rises in 
the Yosges mountains. 

2. Place to which (end of motion): — 

nocte ad Nervios pervenerunt (B. G. ii. 17), they came by night to the Nervii. 
adibam ad istum fundum (Caec. 82), I was going to that estate. 
in Africam navigavit, he sailed to Africa ; in Italiam profectus, gone to Italy. 
legatum in Treveros mittit (B. G. iii. 11), he sends his lieutenant into the 
[country of the] Treveri. 

1 Originally all these relations were expressed by the cases alone. The accusative, 
in one of its oldest functions, denoted the end of motion ; the ablative, in its proper 
meaning of separation, denoted the place from which, and, in its locative function, the 
place where. The prepositions, originally adverbs, were afterwards added to define 
more exactly the direction of motion (as in to usward, toward us), and by long asso- 
ciation became indispensable except as indicated below. 



§§ 426, 427] RELATIONS OF PLACE 269 

3. Place where : — 
in hac urbe vitain degit, he passed his life in this city. 
si in Gallia reinanerent (B. G. iv. 8), if they remained in Gaul. 
dum haec in Venetis geruntur (id. iii. 17), while this was going on among the 

Veneti. 
oppiduin in insula positum (id. vii. 58), a town situated on an island. 

427. With names of towns and small islands, and with domus 
and rus, the Relations of Place are expressed as follows : — 

1. The place from which, by the Ablative without a preposition. 

2. The place to which, by the Accusative without a preposition. 

3. The place where, by the Locative. 1 
Examples are : — 

1. Place from which : — 

R5ma profectus, having set out from Rome; Roma abesse, to be absent from 

Rome. 
dom5 abire, to leave home ; rure reversus, having returned from the country. 

2. Place to which: — 

cum R5mam sexto die Mutina venisset (Fam. xi. 6. 1), when he had come to 

Rome from Modena in five days (on the sixth day). 
Delo Rhodum navigare, to sail from JDelos to Rhodes. 
rus Ibo, I shall go into the country. 
domum iit, he went home. 2 [So, suas dom5s abire, to go to their homes.'] 

3. Place where (or at whicli): — 

Romae, at Rome (Roma). Athenis, at Athens (Athenae). 

Rhodi, at Rhodes (Rhodus). Lanuvi, at Lanuvium. 

Sami, at Samos. Cypri, at Cyprus. 

Tiburi or Tibure, at Tibur. Curibus, at Cures. 

Philippis, at Philippi. Capreis, at Capri (Capreae). 

domi (rarely domui), at home. run, in the country. 

a. The Locative Case is also preserved in the following nouns, 
which are used (like names of towns) without a preposition : — 
belli, militiae (in contrast to domi), abroad, in military service. 
humi, on the ground. vesperi (-e), in the evening. 

foris, out of doors. animi (see § 358). 

heri (-e), yesterday. temper!, betimes. 

Cf. infelici arbori (Liv. i. 26), on the ill-omened (barren) tree; terra marlque, 
by land and sea. 

1 The Locative has in the singular of the first and second declensions the same form 
as the Genitive, in the plural and in the third declension the same form as the Dative 
or Ablative. (See p. 34, footnote.) 

2 The English home in this construction is, like domum, an old accusative of the 
end of motion. 



270 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§428 

428. Special uses of place from which, to which, and where are 
the following : — 

a. With, names of towns and small islands ab is often used to 
denote from the vicinity of and ad to denote towards, to the neighbor- 
hood of: — 

ut a Mutina discederet (Phil. xiv. 4), that he should retire from Modena 
(which he was besieging). 

erat a Gergovia despectus in castra (B. G. vii. 45), there was from about 
Gergovia a view into the camp. 

ad Alesiam proficlseuntur (id. vii. 76), they set out for Alesia. 

ad Alesiam perveniunt (id. vii. 79), they arrive at Alesia (i.e. in the neighbor- 
hood of the town). 

D. Laelius cum classe ad Brundisium venit (B. C. iii. 100), Dec imus Lcelius 
came to Brundisium with a fleet (arriving in the harbor). 

b. The general words urbs, oppidum, insula require a preposition 
to express the place from which, to which, or where : — 

ab (ex) urbe, from the city. in urbe, in the city. 

ad urbern, to the city. Romae in urbe, in the city of Rome. 

in urbem, into the city. Roma ex urbe, from the city of Rome. 

ad urbem Roinam (Romam ad iirbem), to the city of Rome. 

c. With the name of a country, ad denotes to the borders ; in with 
the accusative, into the country itself. Similarly ab denotes away 
from the outside ; ex, out of the interior. 

Thus ad Italiam pervenit would mean he came to the frontier, regardless of 
the destination; in Italiam, he went to Italy, i.e. to a place within it, to Rome, 
for instance. 

So ab Italia profectus est would mean he came away from the frontier, regard- 
less of the original starting-point; ex Italia, he came from Italy, from within, as 
from Rome, for instance. 

d. With all names of places at, meaning near (not in), is expressed 
by ad or apud with the accusative. 

piigna ad C annas, the fight at Cannae. 

conchas ad Caietam legunt (De Or. ii. 22), at Caieta (along the shore), 
ad (apud) inferos, in the world below (near, or among, those below), 
ad forls, at the doors. ad ianuam, at the door. 

Note 1. — In the neighborhood of may be expressed by circa with the accusative; 
among, by apud with the accusative : — 

apud Graecos, among the Greeks. apud me, at my house. 

apud Solensis (Leg. ii. 41), at Soli. circa, Capuam, round about Capua. 
Note 2. — In citing an author, apud is regularly used ; in citing a particular work, 
in. Thus, — apud Xenophontem, in Xenophon; but, in Xenophontis Oeconomico, in 
Xenophon's CEconomicus. 



§428] RELATIONS OF PLACE 271 

e. Large islands, and all places when thought of as a territory and 
not as a locality, are treated like names of countries : — 

in Sicilia, in Sicily. 

in Ithaca lepores illati moriuntur (Plin. H. N. viii. 226), in Ithaca hares, when 
carried there, die. [Ulysses lived at Ithaca would require Ithacae.] 

/. The Ablative without a preposition is used to denote the place 
from which in certain idiomatic expressions : — 

cessisset patria (Mil. 68), he would have left his country, 

patria pellere, to drive out of the country. 

mania mittere, to emancipate (let go from the hand). 

g. The poets and later writers often omit the preposition with the 
place from which oi to which when it would be required in classical 
prose : — 

rnanis Acheronte remissos (Aen. v. 99), the spirits returned from Acheron. 

Scythia profecti (Q. C. iv. 12. 11), setting out from Scythia. 

Italiam Lavmiaque venit litora (Aen. i. 2), he came to Italy and the Lavinian 

shores. 
terram Hesperiam venies (id. ii. 781), you shall come to the Hesperian land. 
Aegyptum proficlscitur (Tac. Anu. ii. 59), he sets out for Egypt. 

h. In poetry the place to which is often expressed by the Dative, 
occasionally also in later prose : — 

. it clamor caeld (Aen. v. 451), a shout goes up to the sky. 
facilis descensus Avern5 (id. vi. 126), easy is the descent to Avernus. 
diadema capiti reponere iussit (Val. Max. v. 1. 9), he ordered him to put back 
the diadem on his head. 

i. The preposition is not used with the supine in -um (§ 509) and 
in the following old phrases: — 

exsequias ire, to go to the funeral. infitias ire, to resort to denial. 

pessum ire, to go to ruin. pessum dare, to ruin (cf. perdo). 

venum dare, to sell (give to sale). [Hence vendere.] 

venum ire, to be sold (go to sale). [Hence venire.] 

foras (used as adverb), out: as, — foras egredl, to go out of doors. 

suppetias advenire, to come to one's assistance. 

j. When two or more names of place are used with a verb of motion, 
each must be under its own construction : — 

quadriduo quo haec gesta sunt res ad Chrysogonum in castra L. Sullae Vola.- 
terras defertur (Rose. Am. 20), within four days after this was done, the 
matter was reported to Chrysogonus in Sulla's camp at Volaterroz. 

Note. — The accusative with or without a preposition is often used in Latin when 
motion to a place is implied but not expressed in English (see k, n.). 



272 SYNTAX : CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§§ 428, 429 

k» Domum denoting the place to which, and the locative domi, may 
be modified by a possessive pronoun or a genitive : — 

domum regis (Deiot. 17), to the king's house. [But also in M. Laecae domum 

(Cat. i. 8), to Marcus Lceca's house.] 
domi meae, at my house ; doml Caesaris, at Ccesar's house. 
domi suae vel alienae, at his own or another's house. 
Note. — At times when thus modified, and regularly when otherwise modified, in 
domum or in domo is used : — 

in domum privatam conveniunt (Tac. H. iv. 55) , they come together in a private house. 
in Marci Crassi castissima domd (Gael. 9), in the chaste home of Marcus Crassus. 
[Cf. ex Anniana Milonis domo, § 302. e.] 

429. The place ivhere is denoted by the Ablative without a 
preposition in the following instances : — 

1. Often in indefinite words, such as loco, parte, etc. : — 
quibus loco positls (De Or. iii. 153), when these are set in position. 

qua parte belli vicerant (Liv. xxi. 22), the branch of warfare in which they 
were victorious. 

locis certis horrea constituit (B. C. iii. 32), he established granaries in par- 
ticular places. 

2. Frequently with nouns which are qualified by adjectives (regu- 
larly when totus is used) : — 

media urbe (Liv. i. 33), in the middle of the city. 
tota Sicilia (Verr. iv. 51), throughout Sicily (in the whole of Sicily), 
tota Tarracina (De Or. ii. 240), in all Tarracina. 

cuncta Asia atque Graecia (Manil. 12), throughout the whole of Asia and 
Greece too. 

3. In many idiomatic expressions which have lost the idea of place : 
pendemus animis (Tusc. i. 96), we are in suspense of mind (in our minds), 
socius periculis voblscum adero (lug. 85. 47), I will be present with you, a 

companion in dangers. 

4. Freely in poetry : — 

litore curvo (Aen. iii. 16), on the winding shore. 

antrS sechisa relinquit (id. iii. 446), she leaves them shut up in the cave. 

Epiro, Hesperia (id. iii. 503), in Epirus, in Hesperia. 

premit altum corde dolorem (id. i. 209), he keeps down the pain deep in his heart. 

a. The ivay by which is put in the Ablative without a preposition : 
via breviore equites praemisi (Fam. x. 9), I sent forward the cavalry by a 

shorter road. 
Aegaeo mari traiecit (Liv. xxxvii. 14), he crossed by way of the JEgean Sea. 
provehimur pelago (Aen. iii. 506), we sail forth over the sea. 

Note. — In this use the ivay by which is conceived as the means of passage. 



§§429-431] RELATIONS OF PLACE 273 

6. Position is frequently expressed by the Ablative with ab (rarely 
ex), properly meaning from: — * 

a tergo, in the rear ; a sinistra, on the left hand. [Cf. hinc, on this side.] 

a parte Pompeiana, on the side of Pompey. 

ex altera parte, on the other side. 

magna ex parte, in a great degree (from, i.e. in, a great part). 

430. Verbs of placing, though implying motion, take the con- 
struction of the place where : — 

Such are pono, loco, colloco, statuo, constituo, etc. : — 
qui in sede ac domd collocavit (Par. 25), who put [one] into his place and 

home. 
statuitur eques Romanus in ApronI convivio (Verr. iii. 62), a Roman knight 

is brought into a banquet of Apronius. 
insula Delos in Aegaeo mari posita (Manil. 55), the island of Delos, situated in 

the JEgean Sea. 
si in tino Pompeid omnia poneretis (id. 59), if you made everything depend on 

Pompey alone. 

Note. — Compounds of pono take various constructions (see the Lexicon under 
each word) . 

431. Several verbs are followed by the Ablative. 

These are acquiesco, delector, laetor, gaudeo, glorior, nitor, sto, maneo, 
fido, confido, consists, contineor. 

nominibus veterum gloriantur (Or. 169), they glory in the names of the ancients, 

[Also, de dlvitils (in virtiite, circa rem, aliquid, haec) gloriarl.] 
spe niti (Att. iii. 9), to rely on hope. 
priidentia fldens (Off. i. 81), trusting in prudence. 

Note. — The ablative with these verbs sometimes takes the preposition in (but 
fido in is late), and the ablative with them is probably locative. Thus, — in quibus 
causa nititur (Cael. 25), on whom the case depends. 

With several of these verbs the neuter Accusative of pronouns is often found. For 
fido and c5nfid5 with the Dative, see § 367. 

a. The verbals fretus, contentus, and laetus take the Locative Abla- 
tive : — 

fretus gratia Brfitl (Att. v. 21. 12), relying on the favor of Brutus. 
laetus praeda, rejoicing in the booty. 

contentus sorte, content with his lot. [Possibly Ablative of Cause.] 
non fuit contentus gloria (Dom. 101), he was not content with the glory. 

Note. — So intentus, rarely: as, — aliquo negotio intentus (Sail. Cat. 2), intent 
on some occupation. 

1 Apparently the direction whence the sensuous impression comes. 



274 SYNTAX: CONSTRUCTION OF CASES [§432 

SPECIAL USES OF PREPOSITIONS 1 

Adverbs and Prepositions 

432. Certain Adverbs and Adjectives are sometimes used as 
Prepositions : — 

a. The adverbs pridie, postridie, propius, proxime, less frequently the 
adjectives propior and proxinms, may be followed by the Accusative : — 

prldie Ndnas Maias (Att. ii. 11), the day before the Nones of May (see § 631). 

postrldie ludds (Att. xvi. 4), the day after the games. 

propius periculum (Liv. xxi. 1), nearer to danger. 

propior montem (lug. 49), nearer the hill. 

proxinms mare oceanum (B. G. iii. 7), nearest the ocean. 

Note. — Pridie and postridie take also the Genitive (§ 359. b) . Propior, propius, proxi- 
mus, and proxime, take also the Dative, or the Ablative with ab : — 

propius Tiber! quam Thermopylis (Nep. Hann. 8), nearer to the Tiber than to Ther- 
mopylae. 
Sugamhri qui sunt proximi Rheno (B. G. vi. 35), the Sugambri, who are nearest 

to the Rhine. 
proxinms a postremo (Or. 217), next to the last. 

b. Usque sometimes takes the Accusative, but usque ad is much 
more common : — 

terminos usque Libyae (lust. i. 1. 5), to the bounds of Libya. 
usque ad castra hostium (B. G. i. 51), to the enemy 1 s camp. 

c. The adverbs palam, procul, simul, ma} r be used as prepositions 
and take the Ablative : — 

rem creditor! palam populo solvit (Liv. vi. 14), he paid the debt to his creditor 

in the presence of the people. 
haud procul castris in modum municip! exstructa (Tac. H. iv. 22), not far 

from the camp, built up like a town. 
simul nobis habitat barbarus (Ov. Tr. v. 10. 29), close among us dwells the 

barbarian. 

Note. — But simul regularly takes cum ; procul is usually followed by ab in classic 
writers ; and the use of palam as a preposition is comparatively late. 

d. The adverb clam is found in early Latin with the Accusative, 
also once with the Genitive and once in classical Latin with the 
Ablative : — 

clam matrem suam (PI. Mil. 112), unknown to his mother. 
clam patris (id. Merc. 43), without his father's knowledge. 
clam v5bis (B. C. ii. 32. 8), without your knowledge. 

1 For a list of Prepositions with their ordinary uses, see § 221. 



§§433-435] ADVERBS AND PREPOSITIONS 275 

433. Prepositions often retain their original meaning as Ad- 
verbs : — 

1. Ante and post in relations of time : — 

quos paulo ante dlximus (Brut. 32), whom I mentioned a little while ago. 
post tribus diebus, three days after (cf. § 424. /). 

2. Adversus, circiter, prope : — 

nemo adversus Ibat (Liv. xxxvii. 13. 8), no one went out in opposition. 
circiter pars quarta (Sail. Cat. 56), about the fourth part. 
prope exanimatus, nearly lifeless. 

3. A or ab, off, in expressions of distance, with the Ablative of 
Degree of Difference (§ 414) : — 

a milibus passuum circiter duobus Romanorum adventum exspectabant 
(B. G. v. 32), at a distance of about two miles (about two miles off) they 
awaited the approach of the Romans. 

4. In general, prepositions ending in -a : — 
Aeolus haee contra (Aeu. i. 76), thus JEolus in reply. 

forte fuit iuxta tumulus (id. iii. 22), there happened to be a mound close by. 

434. Some Prepositions and Adverbs which imply comparison 
are followed, like comparatives, by quam, which may be separated 
by several words, or even clauses. 

Such words are ante, prius, post, postea, pridie, postndie ; also magis 
and prae in compounds : — 

neque ante dlmisit eum quam fidem dedit (Liv. xxxix. 10), nor did he let him 

go until he gave a pledge. 
post diem tertium quam dlxerat (Mil. 44), the third day after he said it. 
Cato ipse iam servlre quam ptignare mavult (Att. vii. 15), Cato himself by this 

time had rather be a slave than fight. 
Gallorum quam Romanorum imperia praeferre (B. G. i. 17), [they] prefer the 

rule of Gauls to that of Romans. 

Note. — The ablative of time is sometimes followed by quam in the same way 
(§ 424./) : as, — octavo mense quam (Liv. xxi. 15), within eight months after, etc. 

435. The following Prepositions sometimes come after their 
nouns : ad, citra, circum, contra, de, e (ex), inter, iuxta, penes, propter, 
ultra ; so regularly tenus and versus, and occasionally others : — 

[usus] quem penes arbitrium est et itis et norma loquendi (Hor. A. P. 72), 
custom, under whose control is the choice, right, and rule of speech. 

cuius a me corpus est crematum, quod contra decuit ab illo meum (Cat. M. 
84), whose body I burned [on the funeral pile], while on the contrary 
(contrary to which) mine should have been burned by him. 



276 SYNTAX: THE VERB [§436 

SYNTAX OF THE VERB 

MOODS AND TENSES 

436. The Syntax of the Verb relates chiefly to the use of the Moods (which express 
the manner in which the action is conceived) and the Tenses (which express the time of 
the action) . There is no difference in origin between mood and tense ; and hence the 
uses of mood and tense frequently cross each other. Thus the tenses sometimes have 
modal significations (compare indicative in apodosis, § 517. c ; future for imperative, 
§ 449. b) ; and the moods sometimes express time (compare subjunctive in future con- 
ditions, § 516. b, and notice the want of a future subjunctive). 

The parent language had, besides the Imperative mood, two or more forms with 
modal signification. Of these, the Subjunctive appears with two sets of termina- 
tions, -a-m, -a-s, in the present tense (moneam, dicam), and -e-m, -e-s, in the present 
(amem) or other tenses (essem, dixissem) . The Optative was formed by ie-, i-, with the 
present stem (sim, duim) or the perfect (dixerim). (See details in §§ 168, 169.) 

Each mood has two general classes or ranges of meaning. The uses of the Sub- 
junctive may all be classed under the general ideas of will or desire and of action 
vividly conceived ; and the uses of the Optative under the general ideas of wish and 
of action vaguely conceived. 

It must not be supposed, however, that in any given construction either the sub- 
junctive or the optative was deliberately used because it denoted conception or possi- 
bility. On the contrary, each construction has had its own line of development from 
more tangible and literal forms of thought to more vague and ideal; and by this 
process the mood used came to have in each case a special meaning, which was after- 
wards habitually associated with it in that construction. Similar developments have 
taken place in English. Thus, the expression I would do this has become equivalent 
to a mild command, while by analysis it is seen to be the apodosis of a present condi- 
tion contrary to fact (§ 517) : if I were you, etc. By further analysis, / would do is 
seen to have meant, originally, I should have wished (or I did wish) to do. 

In Latin, the original Subjunctive and the Optative became confounded in meaning 
and in form, and were merged in the Subjunctive, at first in the present tense. Then 
new tense-forms of the subjunctive were formed, 1 and to these the original as well as 
the derived meanings of both moods became attached (see § 438) . All the independent 
uses of the Latin subjunctive are thus to be accounted for. 

The dependent uses of the subjunctive have arisen from the employment of some 
independent subjunctive construction in connection with a main statement. Most fre- 
quently the main statement is prefixed to a sentence containing a subjunctive, as 
a more complete expression of a complex idea (§ 268). Thus a question implying a 
general negative (quin rogem? why shouldn't I ash?) might have the general nega- 
tive expressed in a prefixed statement (nulla causa est, there is no reason) ; or abeat, 
let him go away, may be expanded into sine abeat. When such a combination comes 
into habitual use, the original meaning of the subjunctive partially or wholly dis- 
appears and a new meaning arises by implication. Thus, in misit legatos qui dicerent, 
he sent ambassadors to say (i.e. who should say), the original hortatory sense of the 
subjunctive is partially lost, and the mood becomes in part an expression of purpose. 
Similar processes may be seen in the growth of Apodosis. Thus, tolle hanc opinionem, 
luctum sustuleris, remove this notion, you will have done away with grief (i.e. if you 
remove, etc.). 

1 For the signification of the tense-endings, see §§ 168, 169. 



§§ 436, 437] 



INDICATIVE MOOD 



277 



The Infinitive is originally a verbal noun (§ 451), modifying a verb like other nouns : 
void videre, lit. " I wish for-seeing " : compare English " what went ye out for to see ? " 
But in Latin it has been surprisingly developed, so as to have forms for tense, and some 
proper modal characteristics, and to be used as a substitute for finite moods. 

The other noun and adjective forms of the verb have been developed in various 
ways, which are treated under their respective heads below. 
The proper Verbal Constructions may be thus classified : — 
I. Indicative: Direct Assertion or Question (§ 437). 

f 1. Exhortation or Command (§439). 

2. Concession (§440). 

3. Wish (§441). 

4. Question of Doubt etc. (§444). 

5. Possibility or Contingency (§ 446). 



II. Subjunctive: 



III. Imperative: 



IV. Infinitive: 



a. Independent 

Uses : 



6. Dependent 

Uses: 



| Future (less vivid) (§ 516. 6, c). 
I 



1. Conditions ^ 

I Contrary to Fact (§ 517) . 

2. Purpose (with ut, ne) (§531). 

3. Characteristic (Relative Clause) (§535). 

4. Result (with ut, ut non) (§ 537) . 

5. Time (with cum) (§ 546). 

6. Intermediate (Indirect Discourse) (§592). 

7. Indirect Questions or Commands (§§ 574, 



1. Direct Commands (often Subjunctive) (§448). 

2. Statutes, Laws, and Wills (§449. 2). 

3. Prohibitions (early or poetic use) (§ 450. a). 

a. Subject of esse and Impersonal Verbs (§§ 452, 454). 

b. Objective r 1. Complementary Infinitive (§456). 

Construe- \ 2. Indirect Discourse (with Subject Accusative) 
tions: I (§580). 

( 1. Purpose (poetic or Greek use) (§ 460). 

c. Idiomatic J 2. Exclamation (with Subject Accusative) 

Uses:' 1 (§462). 

I 3. Historical Infinitive (§463). 



MOODS 
INDICATIVE MOOD 

437. The Indicative is the mood of direct assertions or ques- 
tions when there is no modification of the verbal idea except that 
of time. 

a. The Indicative is sometimes used where the English idiom 
would suggest the Subjunctive : — 

longum est, it would be tedious [if, etc.]; satius erat, it would have been bet- 
ter [if, etc.]; persequl possum, I might follow up [in detail]. 

Note. — Substitutes for the Indicative are (1) the Historical Infinitive (§ 463), and 
(2) the Infinitive in Indirect Discourse (§ 580) . 

For the Indicative in Conditions, see §§ 515, 516 ; for the Indicative in implied Com- 
mands, see § 449. b. 



278 SYNTAX : THE VERB [§§ 438, 439 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 

438. The Subjunctive in general expresses the verbal idea with 
some modification 1 such as is expressed in English by auxiliaries, 
by the infinitive, or by the rare subjunctive (§ 157. b). 

a. The Subjunctive is used independently to express — 

1. An Exhortation or Command (Hortatory Subjunctive: § 439). 

2. A Concession (Concessive Subjunctive: §440). 

3. A Wish (Optative Subjunctive : § 441). 

4. A Question of Doubt etc. (Deliberative Subjunctive : § 444). 

5. A Possibility or Contingency (Potential Subjunctive : § 446). 
For the special idiomatic uses of the Subjunctive in Apodosis, see § 514. 

b. The Subjunctive is used in dependent clauses to express — 

1. Condition: future or contrary to fact (§§ 516. b, c, 517) 

2. Purpose (Final, § 531). 

3. Characteristic (§ 535). 

4. Result (Consecutive, § 537). 

5. Time (Temporal, § 546). 

6. Indirect Question (§ 574). 

c. The Subjunctive is also used with Conditional Particles of Com. 
parison (§ 524), and in subordinate clauses in the Indirect Discourse 
(§ 580). 

Subjunctive in Independent Sentences 
Hortatory Subjunctive 

439. The Hortatory Subjunctive is used in the present tense 

to express an exhortation or a command. The negative is ne. 

hos latrones interficiamus (B. G. vii. 38), let us kill these robbers. 
caveant intemperantiam, meminerint verecundiae (Off. i. 122), let them shun 
excess and cherish modesty. 

Note 1. — The hortatory subjunctive occurs rarely in the perfect (except in pro- 
hibitions: § 450) : as, — Epicurus hoc viderit (Acad. ii. 19), let Epicurus look to this. 

Note 2. — The term hortatory subjunctive is sometimes restricted to the first per- 
son plural, the second and third persons being designated as the jussive subjunctive ; 
but the constructions are substantially identical. 

1 These modifications are of various kinds, each of which has had its own special 
development (cf . § 436) . The subjunctive in Latin has also many idiomatic uses (as in 
clauses of Result and Time) where the English does not modify the verbal idea at all, 
but expresses it directly. In such cases the Latin merely takes a different view ot 
the action and has developed the construction differently from the English. 



§§439,440] HORTATORY SUBJUNCTIVE 279 

Note 3. — Once in Cicero and occasionally in the poets and later writers the Nega- 
tive with the hortatory subjunctive is non : as, — a legibus non recedamus (Clu. 155), let 
us not abandon the laws. 

a. The Second Person of the hortatory subjunctive is used only 
of an indefinite subject, except in prohibitions, in early Latin, and in 
poetry : — 

iniurias fortunae, quas ferre nequeas, defugiendo relinquas (Tusc. v. 118), the 
wrongs of fortune, which you cannot bear, leave behind by flight. 

exoriare aliquis ultor (Aen. iv. 625), rise, some avenger. 

isto bono utare dum adsit, cum absit ne requiras (Cat. M. 33), use this bless- 
ing while it is present ; when it is wanting do not regret it. 

doceas iter et sacra ostia pandas (Aen. vi. 109), show us the way and lay open 
the sacred portals, 
For Negative Commands (prohibitio?is) , see §450. 

b. The Imperfect and Pluperfect of the hortatory subjunctive 
denote an unfulfilled obligation in past time : — 

moreretur, inquies (Rab. Post, 29), he should have died, you will say. 
potius doceret (Off. iii. 88), he should rather have taught. 
ne poposcisses (Att. ii. 1. 3), you should not have asked. 
saltern aliquid de pondere detraxisset (Fin. iv. 57), at least he should have 
taken something from the weight. 
Note 1. — In this construction the Pluperfect usually differs from the Imperfect 
only in more clearly representing the time for action as momentary or as past. 

Note 2. — This use of the subjunctive is carefully to be distinguished from the 
potential use (§ 44G). The difference is indicated by the translation, should or ougJtt 
(not would or might). 

440. The Hortatory Subjunctive is used to express a conces- 
sion. 1 The Present is used for present time, the Perfect for past. 
The negative is ne. 

sit fur, sit sacrilegus: at est bonus imperator (Verr. v. 4), grant he is a 

thief, a godless wretch : yet he is a good general. 
fuerit aliis; tibi quando esse coepit (Verr. ii. 1. 37), suppose he was [so] to 

others ; when did he begin to be to you ? 
nemo is umquam fuit: ne fuerit (Or. 101), there never was such a one [you 

will say] : granted (let there not have been), 
ne sit surnmum malum dolor, malum certe est (Tusc. ii. 14), granted that 
pain is not the greatest evil, at least it is an evil. 
Note. — The concessive subjunctive with quamvis and licet is originally hortatory 
(§527. a, b). 

For other methods of expressing Concession, see § 527. 

For the Hortatory Subjunctive denoting a Proviso, see § 528. a. 

1 Many scholars regard the concessive subjunctive as a development of the Optative 
Subjunctive in a wish. 



280 SYNTAX : THE VERB [§§ 441, 442 

Optative Subjunctive 

441. The Optative Subjunctive is used to express a Wish. The 
present tense denotes the wish as possible, the imperfect as unac- 
complished in present time, the pluperfect as unaccomplished in 
past time. The negative is ne : — 

ita vivam (Att. v. 15), as true as I live, so may I live. 

ne vivam si scio (id. iv. 16. 8), I wish I may not live if I know. 

di te perduint (Deiot. 21), the gods confound thee! 

valeant, valeant elves mei; sint incolumes (Mil. 93), farewell, farewell to my 

fellow-citizens; may they be secure from harm. 
di facerent sine patre forem (Ov. M. viii. 72), would that the gods allowed me 

to be without a father (but they do not) ! 

a. The perfect subjunctive in a wish is archaic : — 

di faxint (Fam. xiv. 3. 3), may the gods grant. 

quod di omen averterint (Phil. xii. 14, in a religious formula), and may the 
gods avert this omen. 

442. The Optative Subjunctive is often preceded by the par- 
ticle utinam ; so regularly in the imperfect and pluperfect : — 

falsus utinam vates sim (Liv. xxi. 10. 10), I wish I may be a false prophet. 
utinam Clodius viveret (Mil. 103), would that Clodius were now alive. 
utinam me mortuum vidisses (Q. Fr. i. 3. 1), would you had seen me dead. 
utinam ne vere* scriberem (Fam. v. 17. 3), would that I were not writing the 
truth. 
Note. — Utinam non is occasionally used instead of utinam ne: as, — utinam sus- 
ceptus non essem (Att. ix. 9. 3), would that I had not been born. 

a. In poetry and old Latin uti or ut often introduces the optative 
subjunctive ; and in poetry si or o si with the subjunctive sometimes 
expresses a wish : — 

ut pereat positum robigine telum (Hor. S. ii. 1. 43), may the weapon unused 

perish with rust. 
6 si angulus ille accedat (id. ii. 6. 8), O if that corner might only be added ! 
si nunc se nobis ille aureus ramus ostendat(Aen. vi. 187), if now that golden 
branch would only show itself to us ! 

Note 1. — The subjunctive with uti (ut) or utinam was originally deliberative, 
meaning how may I, etc. (§ 444) . The subjunctive with si or o si is a protasis (§ 512. a) , 
the apodosis not being expressed. 

Note 2. — The subjunctive of wish without a particle is seldom found in the imper- 
fect or pluperfect except by sequence of tenses in Indirect Discourse (§ 585): as, — ac 
venerata Ceres, ita culmo surgeret alto (Hor. S. ii. 2. 124), and Ceres worshipped [with 
libations] that so she might rise with tall stalk. [In addressing the goddess directly 
the prayer would be : ita surgas.] 



§§442-444] DELIBERATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE 281 

b. Velim and vellem, and their compounds, with a subjunctive or 
infinitive, are often equivalent to an optative subjunctive : — 

velim tibi persuadeas (Earn. ix. 13. 2), I should like to have you believe (I 

should wish that you would persuade yourself), 
de" Menedemo vellem verum fuisset, de regina velim verum sit (Att. xv. 4. 4), 
about Menedemus I wish it had been true; about the queen I wish it may be. 
nollem accidisset tempus (Fam. iii. 10. 2), I wish the time never had come. 
mallem Cerberum metueres (Tusc. i. 12), I had rather have had you afraid 
of Cerberus (I should have preferred that you feared Cerberus). 
Note. — Velim etc., in this use, are either potential subjunctives, or apodoses with 
the protasis omitted (§ 447. 1. n.). The thing loished may be regarded as a substantive 
clause used as object of the verb of wishing (§ 565. n. 1 ). 

Deliberative Subjunctive 

443. The Subjunctive was used in sentences of interrogative form, at first when 
the speaker wished information in regard to the will or desire of the person addressed. 
The mood was therefore hortatory in origin. But such questions when addressed by 
the speaker to himself, as if asking his own advice, become deliberative or, not infre- 
quently, merely exclamatory. In such cases the mood often approaches the meaning 
of the Potential (see § 445) . In these uses the subjunctive is often called Deliberative 
or Dubitative. 

444. The Subjunctive is used in questions implying (1) doubt, 
indignation, or (2) an impossibility of the thing's being done. 
The negative is non. 

quid agam, iudices? quo me vertam (Verr. v. 2), what am I to do, judges f 

whither shall I turn f 
etiamne earn salutem (PL Rud. 1275), shall I greet her ? 
quid hoc homine facias? quod supplicium dignum libidini §ius invenias (Verr. 
ii. 40), what are you to do with this man? what fit penalty can you devise 
for his wantonness f 
an ego non venirem (Phil. ii. 3), what, should I not have come f 
quid dicerem (Att. vi. 3. 9), what was I to say f 

quis enim celaverit ignem (Ov. H. xv. 7), who could conceal the flame ? 
Note. — The hortatory origin of some of these questions is obvious. Thus, — quid 
faciamus?— faciamus [aliquid], quid? let us do — what? (Compare the expanded form 
quid vis faciamus ? vjhat do you wish us to do ?) Once established, it was readily trans- 
ferred to the past: quid faciam? what am I to do? quid facerem? what was / to do? 
Questions implying impossibility, however, cannot be distinguished from Apodosis 
(cf. §517). 

a. In many cases the question has become a mere exclamation, 
rejecting a suggested possibility : 

mihi umquam bonorum praesidium defuturum putarem (Mil. 94), could I 
think that the defence of good men would ever fail me ! 
Note. — The indicative is sometimes used in deliberative questions : as, — quid ag5, 
what am I to do ? 



282 SYNTAX: THE VERB [§§445-447 

Potential Subjunctive 

445. Of the two principal uses of the Subjunctive in independent sentences (cf. 
§436), the second, or Potential Subjunctive, 1 is found in a variety of sentence-forms 
having as their common element the fact that the mood represents the action as merely 
conceived or possible, not as desired (hortatory, optative) or real (indicative). Some 
of these uses are very old and may go back to the Indo-European parent speech, but 
no satisfactory connection between the Potential and the Hortatory and Optative 
Subjunctive has been traced. There is no single English equivalent for the Potential 
Subjunctive; the mood must be rendered, according to circumstances, by the auxil- 
iaries would, should, may, might, can, could. 

446. The Potential Subjunctive is used to suggest an action 
as possible or conceivable. The negative is non. 

In this use the Present and the Perfect refer without distinction to 
the immediate/Wwre; the Imperfect (occasionally the Perfect) to past 
time ;• the Pluperfect (which is rare) to what might have happened. 

447. The Potential Subjunctive has the following uses : — 

1. In cautious or modest assertions in the first person singular of 
expressions of saying, thinking, or ivishing (present or perfect) : — 

pace tua dixerim (Mil. 103), I would say by your leave. 

baud sciam an (Lael. 51), I should incline to think. 

tu. velim sic exlstimes (Fain, xii. 6), I should like you to think so. 

certum affirm are non ausim (Li v. iii. 23), I should not dare to assert as sure. 
Note. — Vellem, ndllem, or mallem expressing an unfulfilled wish in present time 
may be classed as independent potential subjunctive or as the apodosis of an unex- 
pressed condition (§521): as — vellem adesset M. Antonius (Phil. i. 16), I could wish 
Antony were here. 

2. In the indefinite second person singular of verbs of saying, think- 
ing, and the like (present or imperfect) : — 

credas non de puero scriptum sed a puero (Plin. Ep. iv. 7. 7), you would 
think that it was written not aboid a boy but by a boy. 

crederes victos (Liv. ii. 43. 9), you would have thought them conquered. 

reos diceres (id. ii. 35. 5), you would have said they were culprits. 

videres susurros (Hor. S. ii. 8. 77), you might have seen them whispering (lit. 
whispers). 

freto assimilare possis (Ov. M. v. 6), you might compare it to a sea. 

3. With other verbs, in all persons, when some word or phrase in 
the context implies that the action is expressed as merely possible or 
conceivable : — 

1 The name Potential Subjunctive is not precisely descriptive, but is fixed in 
grammatical usage. 



§§ 447, 448] IMPERATIVE MOOD 283 

nil ego contulerim iticundo sanus amlco (Hor. S. i. 5. 44), when in my senses 

I should compare nothing with an interesting friend. 
fortunam citius reperias quarn retineas (Pub. Syr. 168), you may sooner find 

fortune than keep it. 
aliquis dicat (Ter. And. 640), somebody may say. 

Note. — In this use the subjunctive may be regarded as the apodosis of an unde- 
veloped protasis. When the conditional idea becomes clearer, it finds expression in 
a formal protasis, and a conditional sentence is developed. 

a. Forsitan, perhaps, regularly takes the Potential Subjunctive 
except in later Latin and in poetry, where the Indicative is also 
common : — 

forsitan quaeratis qui iste terror sit (Rose. Am. 5), you may perhaps inquire 

what this alarm is. 
forsitan temere fecerim (id. 31), perhaps I have acted rashly. 

Note. — The subjunctive clause with forsitan (=fors sit an) was originally an Indi- 
rect Question: it would be a chance whether, etc. 

&. Ttortsisse, perhaps, is regularly followed by the Indicative; some- 
times, however, by the Subjunctive, but chiefly in later Latin: — 
quaeres fortasse (Earn. xv. 4. 13), perhaps you will ask. 

Note. — Other expressions tor perhaps are (1) forsan (chiefly poetical; construed 
with the indicative or the subjunctive, more commonly the indicative), fors (rare and 
poetical; construed with either the indicative or the subjunctive). Forsit (or fors sit) 
occurs once (Hor. S. i. 6. 49) and takes the subjunctive. Fortasse is sometimes followed 
by the infinitive with subject accusative in Plautus and Terence. Fortassis (rare ; con- 
strued like fortasse) and fortasse an (very rare; construed with the subjunctive) are 
also found. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD 
448. The Imperative is used in Commands and Entreaties : — 

consulite vobis, prospicite patriae, conservate vos (Cat. iv. 3), have a care for 

yourselves, guard the country, preserve yourselves. 
die, Marce Tulli, sententiam, Marcus Tullius, state your opinion. 
te ipsum concute (Hor. S. i. 3. 35), examine yourself. 
vlve, valeque (id. ii. 5. 110), farewell, bless you (live and be well) ! 
miserere animi non digna ferentis (Aen. ii. 144), pity a soul bearing undeserved 

misfortune. 

a. The third person of the imperative is antiquated or poetic : — 
ollls saltis populi suprema lex esto (Legg. iii. 8), the safety of the people shall 

be their first law. 
ifista imperia sunto, eisque cives raodeste parento (id. iii. 6), let there be law- 
ful authorities, and let the citizens strictly obey them. 
Note. — In prose the Hortatory Subjunctive is commonly used instead (§ 439). 



284 SYNTAX: THE VERB [§449 

449. The Future Imperative is used in commands, etc., where 
there is a distinct reference to future time : — 

1. In connection with some adverb or other expression that indi- 
cates at what time in the future the action of the imperative shall take 
place. So especially with a future, a future perfect indicative, or 
(in poetry and early Latin) with a present imperative : — 

eras petito, dabitur (PL Merc. 769), ask to-morrovj [and] it shall be given. 
cum valetudini consulueris, turn consulit5 navigation! (Fam. xvi. 4. 3), when 

you have attended to your health, then look to your sailing. 
Phyllida mitte mini, meus est natalis, Iolla ; cum f aciam vitula pr5 f rfigibus, 

ipse venitd (Eel. iii. 76), send Phyllis to me, it is my birthday, Iollas; 

when I [shall] sacrifice a heifer for the harvest, come yourself. 
die quibus in terris, etc., et Phyllida solus habetd (id. iii. 107), tell in what 

lands, etc. , and have Phyllis for yourself. 

2. In general directions serving for all time, as Precepts, Statutes, 
and Wills : — 

is iuris civllis eustos esto (Legg. iii. 8), let him (the praetor) be the guardian 

of civil right. 
Borea rlante, ne arato, semen ne iacito (Plin. H. N. xviii. 334), when the north 

wind blows, plough not nor sow your seed. 

a. The verbs scio, memini, and habeS (in the sense of consider) regu- 
larly use the Future Imperative instead of the Present : — 

filiolo me auctum scito (Att. i. 2), learn that I am blessed with a little boy. 

sic habetd, ml Tiro (Fam. xvi. 4. 4), so understand it, my good Tiro. 

de palla mement5, amabo (PL Asin. 939), remember, dear, about the gown. 

b. The Future Indicative is sometimes used for the imperative ; 
and quin (why not ?) with the Present Indicative may have the force 
of a command : — 

si quid accident novi, fades ut sciam (Fam. xiv. 8), you ivill let me know if 

anything new happens. 
quln accipis (Ter. Haut. 832), here, take it (why not take it?). 

c. Instead of the simple Imperative, cura ut, fac (fac ut), or velim, 
followed by the subjunctive (§ 565), is often used, especially in col- 
loquial language : — 

cura ut Romae sis (Att. i. 2), take care to be at Rome. 

fac ut valetudinem cures (Fam. xiv. 17), see that you take care of your health. 

domi adsitis facite (Ter. Eun. 506), be at home, do. 

eum mihi velim mittas (Att. viii. 11), I wish you would send it to me. 
For commands in Indirect Discourse, see § 588. 
For the Imperative with the force of a Conditional Clause, see § 521. 6. 



§460] PROHIBITION (NEGATIVE COMMAND) 285 

Prohibition (Negative Command) 

450. Prohibition is regularly expressed in classic prose (1) by 
noli with the Infinitive, (2) by cave with the Present Subjunctive, 
or (3) by ne with the Perfect Subjunctive : — 1 

(1) noli putare (Lig. 33), do not suppose (be unwilling to suppose), 
noli impudens esse (Fam. xii. 30. 1), don't be shameless. 

nolite cogere socios (Verr. ii. 1. 82), do not compel the allies. 

(2) cave putes (Att. vii. 20), don't suppose (take care lest you suppose), 
cave Ignoscas (Lig. 14), do not pardon. 

cave festines (Fam. xvi. 12. 6), do not be in haste. 

(3) ne necesse habueris (Att. xvi. 2. 5), do not regard it as necessary. 
ne sis admiratus (Fam. vii. 18. 3), do not be surprised. 

hoc facito; hoc ne feceris (Div. ii. 127), thoushalt do this, thou shalt not do that. 

ne Apellae quidem dixeris (Fam. vii. 25. 2), do not tell Apella even. 

ne vos quidem mortem timueritis (Tusc. i. 98), nor must you fear death. 

All three of these constructions are well established in classic prose. The first, 
which is the most ceremonious, occurs oftenest ; the third, though not discourteous, is 
usually less formal and more peremptory than the others. 

Note 1. — Instead of noli the poets sometimes use other imperatives of similar 
meaning (cf. § 457. a): — 

parce pias scelerare manus (Aen. iii. 42), forbear to defile your pious hands. 
cetera mitte loqui (Hor. Epod. 13. 7), forbear to say the rest. 
fuge quaerere (Hor. Od. i. 9. 13), do not inquire. 
Note 2. — Cave ne is sometimes used in prohibitions ; also vide ne and (colloquially) 
fac ne : as, — fac ne quid aliud cures (Fam. xvi. 11), see that you attend to nothing else. 
Note 3. — The present subjunctive with ne and the perfect with cave are found in 
old writers ; ne with the present is common in poetry at all periods : — 
ne exspectetis (PI. Ps. 1234), do not wait. 
ne metuas (Mart. Ep. i. 70. 13), do not fear. 
cave quicquam responderis (PI. Am. 608), do not make any reply. 
Note 4. — Other negatives sometimes take the place of ne : — 
nihil ignoveris (Mur. 65), grant no pardon (pardon nothing). 
nee mihi illud dixeris (Fin. i. 25), and do not say this to me. 
Note 5. — The regular connective, and do not, is neve. 

a. The Present Imperative with ne is used in prohibitions by early 
writers and the poets : — 

ne time (PI. Cure. 520), donH be afraid. 

nimium ne crede colorl (Eel. ii. 17), trust not too much to complexion. 

equo ne credite (Aen. ii. 48), trust not the horse. 

b. The Future Imperative with ne is used in prohibitions in laws 
and formal precepts (see § 449. 2). 

1 In prohibitions the subjunctive with ne is hortatory; that with cave is an object 
clause (cf. §§450. n. 2 , 565. N.i). 



286 SYNTAX : THE VERB [§§ 461, 452 



INFINITIVE MOOD 

451. The Infinitive is properly a noun denoting the action of the verb abstractly. 
It differs, however, from other abstract nouns in the following points: (1) it often 
admits the distinction of tense; (2) it is modified by adverbs, not by adjectives; (3) it 
governs the same case as its verb ; (4) it is limited to special constructions. 

The Latin Infinitive is the dative or locative case of such a noun 1 and was origi- 
nally used to denote Purpose ; but it has in many constructions developed into a sub- 
stitute for a finite verb. Hence the variety of its use. 

In its use as a verb, the Infinitive may take a Subject Accusative (§ 397. e), origi- 
nally the object of another verb on which the Infinitive depended. Thus iubeo te valere 
is literally I command you for being well (cf. substantive clauses, § 562. n.). 

Infinitive as Noun 

452. The Infinitive, with or without a subject accusative, may 
be used with est and similar verbs (1) as the Subject, (2) in Appo- 
sition with the subject, or (3) as a Predicate Nominative. 2 

1. As Subject: — 

dolere malum est (Fin. v. 84), to suffer pain is an evil. 

bellum est sua vitia nosse (Att. ii. 17), Ws a fine thing to know one's own 

faults. 
praestat componere fluctus (Aen. i. 135), it is better to calm the waves. 

2. In Apposition with the Subject : — 

proinde quasi iniuriam facere id demum esset imperio u.ti (Sail. Cat. 12), 
just as if this and this alone, to commit injustice, were to use power. 
[Here facere is in apposition with id.] 

3. As Predicate Nominative : — 

id est convenienter naturae vivere (Fin. iv. 41), that is to live in conformity 
with nature. [Cf. uti in the last example.] 

Note 1. — An infinitive may be used as Direct Object in connection with a Predi- 
cate Accusative (§ 393), or as Appositive with such Direct Object: — 

istuc ipsum non esse cum fueris miserrimum puto (Tusc. i. 12), for I think this 
very thing most wretched, not to be when one has been. [Here istuc ipsum 
belongs to the noun non esse.] 
miserari, invidere, gestire, laetari, haec omnia morbos Graeci appellant (id. iii. 7), 
to feel pity, envy, desire, joy, — all these things the Greeks call diseases. 
[Here the infinitives are in apposition with haec.] 

1 The ending -e (amare, monere, regere, audire) was apparently locative, the ending -i 
(amari, moneri, regi, audiri) apparently dative ; but this difference of case had no signifi- 
cance for Latin syntax. The general Latin restriction of the I-infinitives to the passive 
was not a primitive distinction, but grew up in the course of time. 

2 In these constructions the abstract idea expressed by the infinitive is represented 
as having some quality or belonging to some thing. 



§§ 452-454] INFINITIVE AS SUBJECT OF IMPERSONALS 287 

Note 2. — An Appositive or Predicate noun or adjective used with an infinitive in 
any of these constructions is put in the Accusative, whether the infinitive has a sub- 
ject expressed or not. Thus, — non esse cupidum peciinia est (Par. 51), to be free from 
desires (not to be desirous) is money in hand. [No Subject Accusative.] 

a. The infinitive as subject is not common except with est and 
similar verbs. But sometimes, especially in poetry, it is used as the 
subject of verbs which are apparently more active in meaning : — 

quos omnls eadem cupere, eadem odisse, eadem metuere, in unum coegit 
(lug. 31), all of whom the fact of desiring, hating, and fearing the same 
things has united into one. 

ingenuas didicisse fideliter artls emollit mores (Ov. P. ii. 9. 48) , faithfully to 
have learned liberal arts softens the manners. 

posse loqul eripitur (Ov. M. ii. 483), the power of speech is taken away. 

453. Rarely the Infinitive is used exactly like the Accusative 
of a noun : — 

beate vivere alii in alio, vos in voluptate ponitis (Fin. ii. 86), a happy life 
different [philosophers] base on different things, you on pleasure. 

quam multa . . . facimus causa anilcoruin, precari ab indlgno, supplicare, etc. 
(Lael. 57), how many things we do for our friends' sake, ask favors from 
an unworthy person, resort to entreaty, etc. 

nihil exploratum habeas, ne amare quidem aut amari (id. 97), you have noth- 
ing assured, not even loving and being loved. 

Note. — Many complementary and other constructions approach a proper accusa- 
tive use of the infinitive, but their development has been different from that of the 
examples above. Thus, — avaritia . . . superbiam, crudelitatem,deosneglegere, omnia 
venalia habere edocuit (Sail. Cat. 10), avarice taught pride , cruelty, to neglect the gods, 
and to hold everything at a price. 

Infinitive as Apparent Subject of Impersonate 

454. The Infinitive is used as the apparent Subject with many 
impersonal verbs and expressions : 

Such are libet, licet, oportet, decet, placet, visum est, pudet, piget, 
necesse est, opus est, etc. : — 

libet mihi considerare (Quinct. 48), it suits me to consider. 

necesse est mori (Tusc. ii. 2), it is necessary to die. 

quid attinet gloriose loqui nisi constanter loquare (Fin. ii. 89), what good does 

it do to talk boastfully unless you speak consistently f 
neque me vixisse paenitet (id. 84), I do not feel sorry to have lived. 
gubernare me taedebat (Att. ii. 7. 4), I was tired of being pilot. 

Note. — This use is a development of the Complementary Infinitive (§ 456) ; but 
the infinitives approach the subject construction and may be conveniently regarded as 
the subjects of the impersonals. 



288 SYNTAX: THE VERB [§455 

455. With impersonal verbs and expressions that take the In- 
finitive as an apparent subject, the personal subject of the action 
may be expressed — 

1. By a Dative, depending on the verb or verbal phrase : — 
rogant ut id sibi facere liceat (B. G. i. 7), they ask that it be allowed them to 

do this. 
n5n lubet enim mihi deplorare vitam (Cat. M. 84), for it does not please me 

to lament my life. 
visum est mihi de senectute aliquid conscrlbere (id. 1), it seemed good to 

me to write something about old age. 
quid est tarn secundum naturani quam senibus emorl (id. 71), what is so 

much in accordance with nature as for old men to die ? 
exstingui homini suo tempore optabile est (id. 85), for a man to die at the 

appointed time is desirable. 

2. By an Accusative expressed as the subject of the infinitive or 
the object of the impersonal : — 

si licet vivere eum quern Sex. Naevius non volt (Quinct. 94), if it is allowed 

a man to live against the will of Sextus Ncevius. 
nonne oportuit praescisse me ante (Ter. And. 239), ought I not to have known 

beforehand f . 
oratorem Irasci minime" decet (Tusc. iv. 54), it is particularly unbecoming for 

an orator to lose his temper. 
puderet me dicere (N. D. i. 109), I should be ashamed to say. 
consilia ineunt quorum eds in vestigio paenitere necesse est (B. G. iv. 5), they 

form plans for which they must at once be sorry. 
Note. — Libet, placet, and visum est take the dative only; oportet, pudet, piget, and 
generally decet, the accusative only ; licet and necesse est take either case. 

a. A predicate noun or adj ective is commonly in the Accusative ; 
but with licet regularly, and with other verbs occasionally, the Dative 
is used : — 

expedit bonas esse vobls (Ter. Haut. 388), it is for your advantage to be good. 
licuit esse otiosd Themistocli (Tusc. i. 33), Themistocles might have been inac- 
tive (it was allowed to Themistocles to be inactive), 
mihi neglegenti esse non licet (Att. i. 17. 6), I must not be negligent. [But 

also neglegentem. ] 
cur his esse liberos non licet (Flacc. 71), why is it not allowed these men to 

be free ? 
n6n est omnibus stantibus necesse dicere (Marc. 33), it is not necessary for 
all to speak standing. 

Note. — When the subject is not expressed, as being indefinite (one, anybody), a 
predicate noun or adjective is regularly in the accusative (cf. §452. 3. n. 2 ): as, — 
vel pace vel bello clarum fieri licet (Sail. Cat. 3), one can become illustrious either in 
peace or in war. 



§§ 456, 457] COMPLEMENTARY INFINITIVE 289 

Complementary Infinitive 

456. Verbs which imply another action of the same subject to 
complete their meaning take the Infinitive without a subject 
accusative. 

Such are verbs denoting to be able, dare, undertake, remember, for- 
get, be accustomed, begin, continue, cease, hesitate, learn, know how, 
fear, and the like : — 

h5c queo dicere (Cat. M. 32), this I can say. 

mitto quaerere (Rose. Am. 53), I omit to ask. 

vereor laudare praesentem (N. D. i. 58), I fear to praise a man to his face. 

oro ut matures venire (Att. iv. 1), J beg you will make haste to come. 

oblivisci non possum quae volo (Fin. ii. 104), I cannot forget that which I 

wish. 
desine id me docere (Tusc. ii. 29), cease to teach me that. 
dicere solebat, he used to say. 
audeo dicere, I venture to say. 
loqui posse coepl, I began to be able to speak. 

Note. — The peculiarity of the Complementary Infinitive construction is that no 
Subject Accusative is in general admissible or conceivable. But some infinitives 
usually regarded as objects can hardly be distinguished from this construction when 
they have no subject expressed. Thus volo dicere and volo me dicere mean the same 
thing, I wish to speak, but the latter is object-infinitive, while the former is not 
apparently different in origin and construction from que5 dicere (complementary infin- 
itive), and again volo eum dicere, / wish him to speak, is essentially different from 
either (cf. §563. b). 

457. Many verbs take either a Subjunctive Clause or a Com- 
plementary Infinitive, without difference of meaning. 

Such are verbs signifying willingness, necessity, propriety, resolve, 
command, prohibition, effort, and the like (cf. § 563) : — 
decernere optabat (Q. C. iii. 11. 1), he was eager to decide. 
optavit ut tolleretur (Off. iii. 94), he was eager to be taken up. 
oppugnare contendit (B. G. v. 21), he strove to take by storm. 
contendit ut caperet (id. v. 8), he strove to take. 
bellum gerere constituit (id. iv. 6), he decided to carry on war. 
constitueram ut manerem (Att. xvi. 10. 1), I had decided to remain. 

Note 1. — For the infinitive with subject accusative used with some of these verbs 
instead of a complementary infinitive, see § 563. 

Note 2. — Some verbs of these classes never take the subjunctive, but are identi- 
cal in meaning with others which do : — 

eos quos tutari debent deserunt (Off. i. 28), they forsake those whom they ought to 

protect. 
aveo pugnare (Att. ii. 18. 3), I'm anxious to fight. 



290 SYNTAX: THE VERB [§§457-460 

a. In poetry and later writers many verbs may have the infini- 
tive, after the analogy of verbs of more literal meaning that take 
it in prose : — 

furit te reperire (Hor. Od. i. 15. 27), he rages to find thee. [A forcible way 

of saying cupit (§§ 457, 563. &).] 
saevit exstinguere nomen (Ov. M. i. 200), he rages to blot out the name. 
fuge quaerere (Hor. Od. i. 9. 13), forbear to ask (cf. § 450. n. 1 ). 
parce pias scelerare mantis (Aen. iii. 42), forbear to defile your pious hands. 

458. A Predicate Noun or Adjective after a complementary 
infinitive takes the case of the subject of the main verb : — 

fierique studebam eius prudentia doctior (Lael. 1), I was eager to become 

more wise through his wisdom. 
scio quam soleas esse occupatus (Fam. xvi. 21. 7), I know how busy you 

usually are (are wont to be). 
brevis esse laboro, obsciirus flo (Hor. A. P. 25), I struggle to be brief, I become 

obscure. 

Infinitive with Subject Accusative 

459. The Infinitive with Subject Accusative is used with verbs 

and other expressions of knowing,, thinking, telling, and perceiving 

{Indirect Discourse, § 579) : — 

dicit montem ab hostibus teneri (B. G. i. 22), he says that the hill is held by 
the enemy. [Direct : m5ns ab hostibus tenetur.] 

Infinitive of Purpose 

460. In a few cases the Infinitive retains its original meaning 
of Purpose. 

a. The infinitive is used in isolated passages instead of a subjunc- 
tive clause after habeo, do, ministro : — 

tantum habeo polliceri (Fam. i. 5 a. 3), so much I have to promise. [Here 

the more formal construction would be quod pollicear.] 
ut Iovl bibere ministraret (Tusc. i. 65), to serve Jove with wine (to drink), 
meridie bibere dato (Cato R. R. 89), give (to) drink at noonday. 

b. Paratus, suetus, and their compounds, and a few other partici- 
ples (used as adjectives), take the infinitive like the verbs from which 
they come : — 

id quod parati sunt facere (Quint. 8), that which they are ready to do. 
adsuefacti superari (B. G. vi. 24), used to being conquered. 
currti succedere sueti (Aen. iii. 541), used to being harnessed to the chariot. 
copias bellare consuetas (B. Afr. 73), forces accustomed to fighting. 



§§460,461] PECULIAK INFINITIVES 291 

Note. — In prose these words more commonly take the Gerund or Gerundive con- 
struction (§ 503 £f.) either in the genitive, the dative, or the accusative with ad : — 
Insuetus navigandi (B. G. v. 6), unused to making voyages. 
alendis liberis sueti (Tac. Ann. xiv. 27), accustomed to supporting children. 
corpora insueta ad onera portanda (B. C. i. 78), bodies unused to carry burdens. 

c. The poets and early writers often use the infinitive to express 
purpose when there is no analogy with any prose construction : — 
filius intro iit videre quid agat (Ter. Hec. 345), your son has gone in to see what 

he is doing. [In prose : the supine visum.] 
non ferro Libycos populare Penatls venimus (A en. i. 527), we have not come 

to lay waste with the sword the Libyan homes. 
loricam donat habere viro (id. v. 262), he gives the hero a breastplate to wear. 
[In prose: habendam.] 

Note. — So rarely in prose writers of the classic period. 

For the Infinitive used instead of a Substantive Clause of Purpose, see § 457. 

For tempus est abire, see § 504. N. 2 . 

Peculiar Infinitives 

461. Many Adjectives take the Infinitive in poetry, following a 
Greek idiom : — 

durus componere versus (Hor. S. i. 4. 8), harsh in composing verse. 
cantari dignus (Eel. v. 54), worthy to be sung. [In prose : qui cantetur.] 
fortis tractare serpentis (Hor. Od. i. 37. 26), brave to handle serpents. 
cantare periti (Eel. x. 32), skilled in song. 
faciles aurem praebere (Prop. iii. 14. 15), ready to lend an ear. 
nescia vinci pectora (Aen. xii. 527), hearts not knowing how to yield. 
te videre aegrotl (Plaut. Trin. 75), sick of seeing you. 

a. Rarely in poetry the infinitive is used to express result : — 
fingit equum docilem magister ire viam qua monstret eques (Hor. Ep. i. 2. 64), 

the trainer makes the horse gentle so as to go in the road the rider points 
out. 
hie ievare . . . pauperem laborious vocatus audit (Hor. Od. ii. 18. 38), he, 
when called, hears, so as to relieve the poor man of his troubles. 

Note. — These poetic constructions were originally regular and belong to the Infin- 
itive as a noun in the Dative or Locative case (§ 451). They had been supplanted, 
however, by other more formal constructions, and were afterwards restored in part 
through Greek influence. 

b. The infinitive occasionally occurs as a pure noun limited by a 
demonstrative, a possessive, or some other adjective: — 

hoc n5n dolere (Ein. ii. 18), this freedom from pain. [Cf. totum hoc beate 

vivere (Tusc. v. 33), this whole matter of the happy life.] 
nostrum vivere (Pers. i. 9), our life (to live). 
scire tuum (id. i. 27), your knowledge (to know). 



292 SYNTAX : THE VERB [§§ 462, 463 

Exclamatory Infinitive 

462. The Infinitive, with Subject Accusative, 1 may be used in 
Exclamations (cf. § 397. c?) : — 

te in tantas aerumnas propter me* incidisse (Fam. xiv. 1), alas, that you 

should have fallen into such grief for me ! 
mene incepto desistere victam (Aen. i. 37), what ! I beaten desist from my 
purpose f 
Note 1. — The interrogative particle -ne is often attached to the emphatic word (as 
in the second example). 

Note 2. — The Present and the Perfect Infinitive are used in this construction with 
their ordinary distinction of time (§ 486). 

a. A subjunctive clause, with or without ut, is often used ellip- 
tically in exclamatory questions. The question may be introduced 
by the interrogative -ne : — 

quamquam quid loquor? te ut ulla res frangat (Cat. i. 22), yet why do I 

speak f [the idea] that anything should bend you ! 
egone ut te" interpellem (Tusc. ii. 42), what, I interrupt you f 
ego tibi irascerer (Q. Fr. i. 3), I angry with you ? 
Note. — The Infinitive in exclamations usually refers to something actually oc- 
curring; the Subjunctive, to something contemplated. 

Historical Infinitive 

463. The Infinitive is often used for the Imperfect Indicative 
in narration, and takes a subject in the Nominative : — 

turn Catilina pollicerl novas tabulas (Sail. Cat. 21), then Catiline promised 
abolition of debts (clean ledgers). 

ego instare ut mihi responderet (Verr. ii. 188), I kept urging him to answer me. 

pars cedere, alii insequi ; neque signa neque ordines observare ; ubi quern que 
periculum ceperat, ibi resistere ac propulsare ; arma, tela, equl, viri, 
hostes atque elves permixti; nihil consilio neque imperii agi; fors 
omnia regere (lug. 51), a part give way, others press on ; they hold neither 
to standards nor ranks; xohere danger overtook them, there each would 
stand and fight ; arms, weapons, horses, men, foe and friend, mingled 
in confusion ; nothing went by counsel or command ; chance ruled all. 

Note. — This construction is not strictly historical, but rather descriptive, and is 
never used to state a mere historical fact. It is rarely found in subordinate clauses. 
Though occurring in most of the writers of all periods, it is most frequent in the his- 
torians Sallust, Livy, Tacitus. It does not occur in Suetonius. 

1 This construction is elliptical ; that is, the thought is quoted in Indirect Discourse, 
though no verb of saying etc. is expressed or even, perhaps, implied (compare the 
French dire que). Passages like hancine ego ad rem natam miseram me memorabo? 
(Plaut. Rud. 188) point to the origin of the construction. 



464, 465] TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE 293 



TENSES 

464. The number of possible Tenses is very great. For in each of the three times, 
Present, Past, and Future, an action may be represented as going on, completed, or 
beginning; as habitual or isolated; as defined in time or indefinite {aoristic) ; as 
determined with reference to the time of the speaker, or as not itself so determined 
but as relative to some time which is determined ; and the past and future times may 
be near or remote. Thus a scheme of thirty or more tenses might be devised. 

But, in the development of forms, which always takes place gradually, no language 
finds occasion for more than a small part of these. The most obvious distinctions, 
according to our habits of thought, appear in the following scheme : — 

1. Definite (fixing the time of the action) 2. Indefinite 

INCOMPLETE COMPLETE NARRATIVE 

Present: a. I am writing. d. I have written. g. I write. 

Past: b. I was writing. e. I had written. h. I wrote. 

Future: c. I shall be writing. f. I shall have written. i. I shall write. 

Most languages disregard some of these distinctions, and some make other distinc- 
tions not here given. The Indo-European parent speech had a Present tense to express 
a and g, a Perfect to express d, an Aorist to express h, a Future to express c and i, and 
an Imperfect to express b. The Latin, however, confounded the Perfect and Aorist 
in a single form (the Perfect scrips!), thus losing all distinction of form between d and 
h, and probably in a great degree the distinction of meaning. The nature of this con- 
fusion may be seen by comparing dixi, dicavi, and didici (all Perfects derived from the 
same root, Die), with e5ei£a, Skr. adiksham, didetxa, Skr. dideca. Latin also devel- 
oped two new forms, those for e (scripseram) and/ (scripsero), and thus possessed six 
tenses, as seen in § 154. c. 

The lines between these six tenses in Latin are not hard and fast, nor are they pre- 
cisely the same that we draw in English. Thus in many verbs the form corresponding 
to / have written (d) is used for those corresponding to lam writing (a) and I write (g) 
in a slightly different sense, and the form corresponding to I had written (e) is used in 
like manner for that corresponding to I was writing (b). Again, the Latin often uses 
the form for J shall have written (/) instead of that for I shall write (i). Thus, novl, I 
have learned, is used for I know; constiterat, he had taken his position, for lie stood; 
cognovero, I shall have learned, for I shall be aware. In general a writer may take his 
own point of view. 



TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE 

Incomplete Action 

PRESENT TENSE 

465. The Present Tense denotes an action or state (1) as now 
taking place or existing, and so (2) as incomplete in present time, 
or (3) as indefinite, referring to no particular time, but denoting a 
general truth : — 



294 SYNTAX : THE VERB [§§ 465, 466 

senatus haec intellegit, consul videt, hie tamen vivit (Cat. i. 2), the senate 

knows this, the consul sees it, yet this man lives. 
tibi concedo meas sedis (Div. i. 104), I give you my seat (an offer which may 

or may not be accepted), 
exspecto quid veils (Ter. And. 34), I await your pleasure (what you wish), 
tu actionem instituis, ille aciem instruit (Mur. 22), you arrange a case, he 

arrays an army. [The present is here used of regular employment.'] 
minora di neglegunt (N. D. iii. 86), the gods disregard trifles. [General 

truth.] 
obsequium amlcos, Veritas odium parit (Ter. And. 68), flattery gains friends, 

truth hatred. [General truth.] 
Note. — The present of a general truth is sometimes called the Gnomic Present. 

a. The present is regularly used in quoting writers whose works 
are extant : — 

Epicurus vero ea dicit (Tusc. ii. 17), but Epicurus says such things. 

apiid ilium Ulixes lamentatur in volnere (id. ii. 49), in him (Sophocles) 

Ulysses laments over his wound. 
Polyphemum Homerus cum ariete colloquentem facit (id. v. 115), Homer 
brings in (makes) Polyphemus talking with his ram. 

Present with iam diu etc. 

466. The Present with expressions of duration of time (espe- 
cially iam diu, iam dudum) denotes an action continuing in the pres- 
ent, but begun in the past (cf. § 471. b). 

In this use the present is commonly to be rendered by the perfect 
in English : — 

iam diu. ignoro quid agas (Fam. vii. 9), for a long time I have not known what 

you were doing. 
te iam dudum hortor (Cat. i. 12), I have long been urging you. 
patimur multos iam annos (Verr. v. 126), we suffer noiv these many years. 

[The Latin perfect would imply that we no longer suffer. ] 
anni sunt octo cum ista causa versatur (cf. Clu. 82), it is now eight years 

that this case has been in hand. 
annum iam audis Cratippum (Off. i. 1), for a year you have been a hearer of 

Cratippus. 
adhuc Plancius me retinet (Fam. xiv. 1. 3), so far Plancius has kept me here. 

Note 1. — The difference in the two idioms is that the English states the beginning 
and leaves the continuance to be inferred, while the Latin states the continuance and 
leaves the beginning to be inferred. Compare he has long suffered (and still suffers) 
with he still suffers {and has suffered long). 

Note 2. — Similarly the Present Imperative with iam dudum indicates that the 
action commanded ought to have been done or was wished for long ago (cf. the Per- 
fect Imperative in Greek): as, — iam dudum sumite poenas .(Aen. ii. 103), exact the 
penalty long delayed. 



§§467-469] PRESENT TENSE 295 

Conative Present 

467. The Present sometimes denotes an action attempted or 
begun in present time, but never completed at all (Conative Pres- 
ent, cf. § 471. €?): — 

iam iamque manti tenet (Aen. ii. 530), and now, even now, he attempts to 

grasp him. 
densos fertur in hostls (id. ii. 511), he starts to rush into the thickest of the foe. 
decerno qulnquaginta dierum supplicationes (Phil. xiv. 29), I move for fifty 

days' thanksgiving. [Cf. senatus decrevit, the senate ordained.'] 

Present for Future 

468. The Present, especially in colloquial language and poetry, 

is often used for the Future : — 

Imusne sessum (De Or. iii. 17), shall we take a seat f (are we going to sit ?) 
hodie uxorem ducis (Ter. And. 321), are you to be married to-day f 
quod si fit, pereo funditus (id. 244), if this happens, I am utterly undone. 
ecquid me adiuvas (Clu. 71), won't you give me a little help f 
in ius voco te. non eo. non is (PI. Asin. 480), I summon you to the court. 
I won't go. You won't f 

Note. — Eo and its compounds are especially frequent in this use (cf. where are 
you going to-morrow? and the Greek el/ut in a future sense). Verbs of necessity , 
possibility, wish, and the like (as possum, volo, etc.) also have reference to the future. 

For other uses of the Present in a future sense, see under Conditions (§ 516. a. n.), 
antequam and priusquam (§ 551. c), dum (§ 553. n. 2 ), and § 444. a. N. 

Historical Present 

469. The Present in lively narrative is often used for the His- 
torical Perfect : — 

affertur nuntius Syracusas; curritur ad praetorium; Cleomenes in publico 
esse non audet ; includit se doml (Verr. v. 92), the news is brought to Syra- 
cuse; they run to headquarters ; Cleomenes does not venture to be abroad ; 
he shuts himself up at home. 
Note. — This usage, common in all languages, comes from imagining past events 
as going on before our eyes (repraesentdtio, § 585. b. n.). 
For the Present Indicative with dum, while, see § 556. 

a. The present may be used for the perfect in a summary enumera- 
tion of past events (Annalistic Present) : — 

Roma interim crescit Albae minis : duplicatur clvium numerus ; Caelius 
additur urbi mons (Liv. i. 30), Rome meanwhile grows as a result of the 
fall of Alba: the number of citizens is doubled; the Coelian hill is added 
to the town. 



296 SYNTAX : THE VERB [§§ 470, 471 

IMPERFECT TENSE 

470. The Imperfect denotes an action or a state as continued 
or repeated in past time : — 

hunc audiebant antea (Manil. 13), they used to hear of him before. 
[S5crat6s] ita censebat itaque disseruit (Tusc. i. 72), Socrates thought so (habit- 
ually), and so he spoke (then), 
prudens esse putabatur (Lael. 6), he was (generally) thought wise. [The per- 
fect would refer to some particular case, and not to a state of things.] 
iamque rubescebat Aur5ra (Aen. iii. 521), and now the dawn was blushing. 
ara vetus stabat (Ov. M. vi. 326), an old altar stood there. 
Note. — The Imperfect is a descriptive tense and denotes an action conceived as 
in progress or a state of things as actually observed. Hence in many verbs it does 
not differ in meaning from the Perfect. Thus rex erat and rex fuit may often be used 
indifferently ; but the former describes the condition while the latter only states it. 
The English is less exact in distinguishing these two modes of statement. Hence the 
Latin Imperfect is often translated by the English Preterite : — 

Haedui graviter ferebant, neque legatos ad Caesarem mittere audgbant (B. G. v. 
6), the Hsedui were displeased , and did not dare to send envoys to Cassar. 
[Here the Imperfects describe the state of things.] But, — 
id tulit factum graviter Indutiomarus (id. v. 4), Indutiornarus was displeased at 

this action. [Here the Perfect merely states the fact.] 
aedificia vicosque habebant (id. iv. 4), they had buildings and villages. 

471. The Imperfect represents a present tense transferred to 
past time. Hence all the meanings which the Present has derived 
from the continuance of the action belong also to the Imperfect in 
reference to past time. 

a. The Imperfect is used in descriptions : — 

erant omnm5 itinera duo . . . m5ns altissimus impend§bat (B. G. i. 6), there 
were in all two ways . . . a very high mountain overhung. 

b. With iam diii, iam dudum, and other expressions of duration of 
time, the Imperfect denotes an action continuing in the past but be- 
gun at some previous time (cf. § 466). 

In this construction the Imperfect is rendered by the English Plu- 
perfect : — 

iam diidum flebam (Ov. M. iii. 656), I had been weeping for a long time. 
c5pias quas diu comparabant (Fam. xi. 13. 5), the forces which they had long 
been getting ready. 

c. The Imperfect sometimes denotes an action as begun (Inceptive 
Imperfect), or as attempted or only intended (Conative Imperfect; cf. 
§467): — 



§ 471] IMPERFECT TENSE 297 

in exsilium eiciebam quern iam ingressum esse in bellum vidSbam (Cat. if. 

14), was I trying to send into exile one who I saw had already gone 

into war ? 
hunc igitur diem sibi proponens Milo, crnentls manibus ad ilia augusta cen- 

turiarum auspicia veniebat (Mil. 43), was Milo coming (i.e. was it likely 

that he would come), etc.? 
si licitum esset veniebant (Verr. v. 129), they were coming if it had been allowed 

(they were on the point of coming, and would have done so if, etc.). 

Note. — To this head may be referred the imperfect with iam, denoting the begin- 
ning of an action or state: as, — iamque arva tenebant ultima (Aen. vi. 477), and now 
they vjerejust getting to the farthest fields. 

d. The Imperfect is sometimes used to express a surprise at the 
present discovery of a fact already existing : — 

6 tii quoque aderas (Ter. Ph. 858), oh, you are here too ! 
ehem, tun hie eras, mi Phaedria (Ter. Eun. 86), what! you here, Phoedriaf 
a miser ! quanta laborabas Charybdi (Hor. Od. i. 27. 19), unhappy boy, what 
a whirlpool you are struggling in [and I never knew it] ! 

e. The Imperfect is often used in dialogue by the comic poets 
where later writers would employ the Perfect : — 

ad amicum Calliclem quoi rem aibat mandasse hie suam (PI. Trin. 956), to 
his friend Callicles, to whom, he said, he had intrusted his property. 

praesagibat mi animus frustra me ire quom exibam domo (PI. Aul. 178), my 
mind mistrusted when I went from home that I went in vain. 

Note. — So, in conversation the imperfect of verbs of saying (cf . as I was a-saying) 
is common in classic prose : — 

at medici quoque, ita enim dicebas, saepe falluntur (N. D. iii. 15), but physicians 

also, — for that is what you were saying just now, — are often mistaken. 
haec mihi fere in mentem veniebant (id. ii. 67, 168), this is about what occurred 
to me, etc. [In a straightforward narration this would be venerunt.] 

/. The Imperfect with negative words often has the force of the 
English auxiliary could or would : — 

itaque (Damocles) nee pulchros illos ministratores aspiciebat (Tusc. v. 62), 
therefore he could not look upon those beautiful slaves. [In this case did 
not would not express the idea of continued prevention of enjoyment by 
the overhanging sword.] 

nee enim dum eram vobiscum animum meura videbatis (Cat. M. 79), for, you 
know, while I was with you, you could not see my soul. [Here the Per- 
fect would refer only to one moment.] 

Lentulus satis erat fortis orator, sed cogitandi non ferebat laborem (Brut. 268), 
Lentulus was bold enough as an orator, but could not endure the exertion 
of thinking hard. 

For the Epistolary Imperfect, see § 479 ; for the Imperfect Indicative in apodosis 
contrary to fact, see § 517. b, c. 



298 SYNTAX : THE VERB [§§ 472, 473 

FUTURE TENSE 

472. The Future denotes an action or state that will occur 
hereafter. 

a. The Future may have the force of an Imperative (§ 449. b). 
h. The Future is often required in a subordinate clause in Latin 
where in English futurity is sufficiently expressed by the main clause : 

cum aderit videbit, when he is there he will see (cf. § 547). 

sanabimur si volemus (Tusc. iii. 13), we shall be healed if we wish (cf . § 516. a). 

Note. — But the Present is common in future protases (§ 516. a. n.). 

Completed Action 

PERFECT TENSE 
Perfect Definite and Historical Perfect 

473. The Perfect denotes an action either as now completed 
(Perfect Definite), or as having taken place at some undefined point 
of past time (Historical or Aoristic Perfect). 

The Perfect Definite corresponds in general to the English Perfect 
with have; the Historical Perfect to the English Preterite (or Past) : 

(1) ut ego feci, qui Graecas litteras senex didici (Cat. M. 26), as I have done, 

who have learned Greek in my old age. 
diuturni silentl finem hodiernus dies attulit (Marc. 1), this day has put an 
end to my long-continued silence. 

(2) tantum bellum extrema hieme apparavit, ineunte vere suscepit, media 

aestate confecit (Manil. 35), so great a war he made ready for at the end 
of winter, undertook in early spring, and finished by midsummer. 

Note. — The distinction between these two uses is represented by two forms in 
most other Indo-European languages, but was almost if not wholly lost to the minds 
of the Romans. It must be noticed, however, on account of the marked distinction 
in English and also because of certain differences in the sequence of tenses. 

a. The Indefinite Present, denoting a customary action or a general 
truth (§ 465), often has the Perfect in a subordinate clause referring 
to time antecedent to that of the main clause : — 

qui in compedibus corporis semper fuerunt, etiam cum soluti sunt tardius 
ingrediuntur (Tusc. i. 75), they who have always been in the fetters of the 
body, even when released move more slowly. 

simul ac mihi collibitum est, praesto est imago (N. D. i. 108), as soon as 1 
have taken a fancy, the image is before my eyes. 



§§473-476] PERFECT TENSE 299 

haec morte effugiuntur, etiam si non evenerunt, tamen quia possunt evenire 
(Tusc. i. 86), these things are escaped by death even if they have not [yet] 
happened, because they still may happen. 

Note. — This use of the perfect is especially common in the protasis of General 
Conditions in present time (§ 518. b). 

474. The Perfect is sometimes used emphatically to denote that 
a thing or condition of things that once existed no longer exists : 

fuit ista quondam in hac re publica virtus (Cat. i. 3), there was once such vir- 
tue in this commonwealth. 

habuit, non habet (Tusc. i. 87), he had, he has no longer. 

f Ilium habeo . . . immo habui ; nunc habeam necne incertumst (Ter. Haut. 
93), I have a son, no, I had one; whether I have now or not is uncertain. 

fuimus Troes, fuit Ilium (Aen. ii. 325), we have ceased to be Trojans, Troy is 
no more. 

Special Uses of the Perfect 

475. The Perfect is sometimes used of a general truth, espe- 
cially with negatives ( Gnomic Perfect) : — 

qui studet contingere metam multa tulit fecitque (Hor. A. P. 412), he who 
aims to reach the goal, first bears and does many things. 

non aeris acervus et aurl deduxit corpore febrls (id. Ep. i. 2. 47), the pile of 
brass and gold removes not fever from the frame. 

Note. — The gnomic perfect strictly refers to past time ; but its use implies that 
something which never did happen in any known case never does happen, and never 
will (cf. the English "Faint heart never won fair lady") ; or, without a negative, 
that what has once happened will always happen under similar circumstances. 

a. The Perfect is often used in expressions containing or implying 
a negation, where in affirmation the Imperfect would be preferred : — 

dicebat melius quam scripsit Hortensius (Or. 132), Hortensius spoke better 
than he wrote. [Here the negative is implied in the comparison : com- 
pare the use of quisquam, ullus, etc. (§§311, 312), and the French ne 
after comparatives and superlatives.] 

476. The completed tenses of some verbs are equivalent to the 
incomplete tenses of verbs of kindred meaning. 

Such are the preteritive verbs odi, I hate; memini, I remember ; novi, 
I know ; consuevi, i" am accustomed, 1 with others used preteritively, 
as venerat (= aderat, he was at hand, etc.), constiterunt, they stand firm 
(have taken their stand), and many inceptives (see § 263. 1) : — 

1 Cf. detestor, reminiscor, scio, soleo. 



300 SYNTAX: THE VERB [§§476-478 

qui digs aestus maximos efficere consuevit (B. G. iv. 29), which day generally 

makes the highest tides (is accustomed to make), 
cuius splendor obsolevit (Quinct. 69), whose splendor is now all faded. 
Note. — Many other verbs are occasionally so used: as, — dum oculos certamen 
averterat (Liv. xxxii. 24), while the contest had turned their eyes (kept them turned). 
[Here averterat = tenebat.] 

PLUPERFECT TENSE 

477. The Pluperfect is used (1) to denote an action or state 
completed in past time ; or (2) sometimes to denote an action in 
indefinite time, but prior to some past time referred to : — 

(1) loci nattira erat haec, quern locum nostrl castris delegerant (B. G. ii. 18), 

this was the nature of the ground which our men had chosen for a camp. 
Viridovlx summam imperl tenebat earum omnium civitatum quae defece- 
• rant (id. iii. 17), Viridovix held the chief command of all those tribes which 
had revolted. 

(2) neque vero cum aliquid mandaverat confectum putabat (Cat. iii. 16), but 

when he had given a thing in charge he did not look on it as done. 
quae si quando adepta est id quod el fuerat concupitum, turn fert alacritatem 
(Tusc. iv. 15), if it (desire) ever has gained what it had [previously] 
desired, then it produces joy. 
For the Epistolary Pluperfect, see § 479. 

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE 

478. The Future Perfect denotes an action as completed in the 
future : — 

ut sementem feceris, ita metes (De Or. ii. 261), as you sow (shall have sown), 

so shall you reap. 
carmina turn melius, cum venerit ipse, canemus (Eel. ix. 67), then shall we 

sing our songs better, when he himself has come (shall have come), 
si illius Insidiae clariores hac luce fuerint, turn denique obsecrabo" (Mil. 6), 
when the plots of that man have been shown to be as clear as daylight, 
then, and not till then, shall I conjure you. 
ego certe meum officium praestitero (B. G. iv. 25), I at least shall have done 
my duty (i.e. when the time comes to reckon up the matter, I shall be 
found to have done it, whatever the event). 
Note. — Latin is far more exact than English in distinguishing between mere 
future action and action completed in the future. Hence the Future Perfect is much 
commoner in Latin than in English. It may even be used instead of the Future, from 
the fondness of the Romans for representing an action as completed : — 

quid inventum sit paulo post videro (Acad. ii. 76), what has been found out I shall 

see presently. 
qui Antonium oppresserit bellum taeterrimum cSnfecerit (Fam. x. 19), whoever 
crushes (shall have crushed) Antony will finish (will have finished) a most 
loathsome war. 



479-481] TENSES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE 301 



EPISTOLARY TENSES 

479. In Letters, the Perfect Historical or the Imperfect may 
be used for the present, and the Pluperfect for any past tense, as 
if the letter were dated at the time it is supposed to be received: — 

neque tamen, haec cum scribebam, eram nescius quantis oneribus premerere 

(Fam. v. 12. 2), nor while I write this am I ignorant under what burdens 

you are weighed down. 
ad tuas omnls [epistulas] rescripseram pridie (Att. ix. 10. 1), I answered all 

your letters yesterday. 
cum quod scriberem ad te nihil haberem, tamen has dedi litteras (Att. ix. 16), 

though I have nothing to write to you, still I write this letter. 

Note. — In this use these tenses are called the Epistolary Perfect, Imperfect, and 
Pluperfect. The epistolary tenses are not employed with any uniformity, but only 
when attention is particularly directed to the time of writing (so especially scribebam, 
dabam, etc.). 

TENSES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE 

480. The tenses of the Subjunctive in Independent Clauses de- 
note time in relation to the time of the speaker. 

The Present always refers to future (or indefinite) time, the Im- 
perfect to either past or present, the Perfect to either future or 
past, the Pluperfect always to past. 

481. The tenses of the Subjunctive in Dependent Clauses were 
habitually used in certain fixed connections with the tenses of the 
main verb. 

These connections were determined by the time of the main 
verb and the time of the dependent verb together. They are 
known, collectively, as the Sequence of Tenses. 

Note. — The so-called Sequence of Tenses is not a mechanical law. Each tense 
of the subjunctive in dependent clauses (as in independent) originally denoted its 
own time in relation to the time of the speaker, though less definitely than the corre- 
sponding tenses of the indicative. Gradually, however, as the complex sentence was 
more strongly felt as a unit, certain types in which the tenses of the dependent 
clause seemed to accord with those of the main clause were almost unconsciously 
regarded as regular, and others, in which there was no such agreement, as excep- 
tional. Thus a pretty definite system of correspondences grew up, which is codi- 
fied in the rules for the Sequence of Tenses. These, however, are by no means 
rigid. They do not apply with equal stringency to all dependent constructions, and 
they were frequently disregarded, not only when their strict observance would have 
obscured the sense, but for the sake of emphasis and variety, or merely from care- 
lessness. 



302 SYNTAX : THE VERB [§§ 482, 483 

Sequence of Tenses 

482. The tenses of the Subjunctive in Dependent Clauses fol- 
low special rules for the Sequence of Tenses. 

With reference to these rules all tenses when usedin independ- 
ent clauses are divided into two classes, — Primary and Secondary. 

1. Primary. — The Primary Tenses include all forms that express 
present or future time. These are the Present, Future, and Future 
Perfect Indicative, the Present and Perfect Subjunctive, and the 
Present and Future Imperative. 

2. Secondary. — The Secondary Tenses include all forms that re- 
fer to past time. These are the Imperfect, Perfect, and Pluperfect 
Indicative, the Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive, and the His- 
torical Infinitive. 

Note. — To these may be added certain forms less commonly used in independent 
clauses : — (1) Primary : Present Infinitive in Exclamations ; (2) Secondary : Perfect 
Infinitive in Exclamations (see §§462, 485. a. n.). 

The Perfect Definite is sometimes treated as primary (see §485. a). 

For the Historical Present, see § 485. e ; for the Imperfect Subjunctive in Apodosis, 
see § 485. h. 

483. The following is the general rule for the Sequence of 
Tenses: — 1 

In complex sentences a Primary tense in the main clause is 
followed by the Present or Perfect in the dependent clause, and 
a Secondary tense by the Imperfect or Pluperfect : — 

Primary Tenses 

rog5, I ask, am asking ] quid facias, what you are doing. 

rogab5, I shall ask I quid feceris, what you did, were doing, 

rogavi (sometimes), I have asked have done, have been doing. 

quid facturus sis, what you will do. 

ut nos moneat, to warn us. 

ut n5s moneas, to warn us. 

quasi oblitus sit, as if he had forgotten. 

1 The term is sometimes extended to certain relations between the tenses of sub- 
ordinate verbs in the indicative and those of the main verb. These relations do not 
differ in principle from those which we are considering; but for convenience the term 
Sequence of Tenses is in this book restricted to subjunctives, in accordance with the 
usual practice. 



rogaver5, 


I shall have 


scrlbit, 


he writes 


scribet, 


he will write 


scribe (scribit5), 


write 


scribit, 


he writes 



§§483-485] SEQUENCE OE TENSES 303 



Secondary Tenses 
rogabam, I asked, was asking 

rogavi, I asked, have asked 



rogaveram, I had asked 



quid faceres, what you were doing. 
quid fecisses, what you had done, had 

been doing. 
quid facturus esses, ivhat you would do. 



scripsit, he wrote ut n5s moneret, to warn us. 

scripsit, he wrote quasi oblitus esset, as if he had forgotten. 

484. In applying the rule for the Sequence of Tenses, observe — 

(1) Whether the main verb is (a) primary or (b) secondary. 

(2) Whether the dependent verb is to denote completed action(i.e. 
past with reference to the main verb) or incomplete action (i.e. pres- 
ent or future with reference to the main verb). Then — 

a* If the leading verb is primary, the dependent verb must be in 
the Present if it denotes incomplete action, in the Perfect if it denotes 
completed action. 

b. If the leading verb is secondary, the dependent verb must be in 
the Imperfect if it denotes incomplete action, in the Pluperfect if it 
denotes completed action : — 

(1) He writes [primary] to warn [incomplete action] us, scribit ut nos moneat. 
I ask [primary] what you were doing [now past], rogo quid feceris. 

(2) He wrote [secondary] to warn [incomplete] us, scripsit ut nos moneret. 
T asked [secondary] what you were doing [incomplete], rogavi quid faceres. 

c. Notice that the Future Perfect denotes action completed (at 
the time referred to), and hence is represented in the Subjunctive by 
the Perfect or Pluperfect : — 

He shows that if they come (shall have come), many will perish, demonstrat, si 

venerint, multos interittiros. 
He showed that if they should come (should have come), many would perish, 

demonstravit, si venissent, multos interittiros. 

485. In the Sequence of Tenses the following special points 
are to be noted : — 

a. The Perfect Indicative is ordinarily a secondary tense, but 
allows the primary sequence when the present time is clearly in the 
writer's mind: — 

ut satis esset praesidi provisum est (Cat. ii. 26), provision has been made that 

there should be ample guard. [Secondary sequence.] 
adduxi hominem in quo satisfacere exteiis nationibus possetis (Verr. i. 2), I 
have brought a man in whose person you can make satisfaction to foreign 
nations. [Secondary sequence.] 



304 SYNTAX: THE VERB [§485 

est enim res iam in eum locum adducta, ut quamquam multum intersit inter 
e5rum causas qui dimicant, tamen inter victorias non multum interfu- 
ttirum putem (Fam. v. 21. 3), for affairs have been brought to such a pass 
that, though there is a great difference between the causes of those who are 
fighting, still I do not think there will be much difference betwem their vic- 
tories. [Primary sequence.] 

ea adhibita doctrma est quae vel vitiosissimam naturam excolere possit (Q. Fr. 
i. 1. 7), such instruction has been given as can train even the faultiest 
nature. [Primary sequence.] 
Note. — The Perfect Infinitive in exclamations follows the same rule: — 

quemquamne fuisse tarn sceleratum qui hoc fingeret (Phil. xiv. 14), was any one so 
abandoned as to imagine this? [Secondary.] 

adeon rem redisse patrem ut extimescam (Ter. Ph. 153), to think that things have 
come to such a pass that I should dread my father! [Primary.] 

h. After a primary tense the Perfect Subjunctive is regularly used to 
denote any past action. Thus the Perfect Subjunctive may represent — 

1. A Perfect Definite : — 

non dubito quin omnes tui scrlpserint (Fam. v. 8), I do not doubt that all 
your friends have written. [Direct statement : scripserunt. ] 

qua re non Ignoro quid accidat in ultimis terns, cum audierim in Italia que- 
rellas civium (Q. Fr. i. 1. 33), therefore I know well what happens at the 
ends of the earth, when I have heard in Italy the complaints of citizens. 
[Direct statement : audivi.] 

2. A Perfect Historical : — 

me autem hie laudat quod rettulerim, n5n quod patefecerim (Att. xii. 21), me 
he praises because I brought the matter [before the senate] , not because I 
brought it to light. [Direct statement : rettulit.] 

3. An Imperfect : — 

si forte ceciderunt, turn intellegitur quam fuerint inopes amicorum (Lael. 53), 

if perchance they fall (have fallen), then one can see how poor they were 

in friends. [Direct question: quam inopes erant?] 
qui status rerum fuerit cum has litteras dedl, scire poteris ex C. Titio Stra- 

b5ne (Fam. xii. 6), what the condition of affairs was when I wrote this 

letter, you can learn from Strabo. [Direct question : qui status erat?] 
quam civitati carus fuerit maer5re f uneris indicatum est (Lael. 11), how dear 

he was to the state has been shown by the grief at his funeral. [Direct 

question : quam carus erat ?] 
ex epistulis intellegi licet quam frequens fuerit Platonis auditor (Or. 15), it 

may be understood from his letters how constant a hearer he was of Plato. 

[Direct question : quam frequens erat ?] 

Note. — Thus the Perfect Subjunctive may represent, not only a Perfect Definite 
or a Perfect Historical of a direct statement or question, but an Imperfect as well. 
This comes from the want of any special tense of the subjunctive for continued past 
action after a primary tense. Thus, miror quid fecerit may mean (1) I wonder what he 
has done, (2) I wonder vjhat he did (hist, perf.), or (3) I wonder what he was doing. 



§485] SEQUENCE OF TENSES 305 

c. In clauses of Besult, the Perfect Subjunctive is regularly (the 
Present rarely) used after secondary tenses : — 

Horteusius ardebat dlcendi cupiditate sic ut in nullo umquam flagrantius 
studium viderim (Brut. 302), Hortensius was so hot with desire of speak- 
ing that I have never seen a more burning ardor in any man. 

[Sicilian! Verres] per triennium ita vexavit ac perdidit ut ea restitui in anti- 
quum statum nullo modo possit (Verr. i. 12), for three years Verres so 
racked and ruined Sicily that she can in no way be restored to her former 
state. [Here the Present describes a state of things actually existing.] 

videor esse consecutus ut non possit Dolabella in Italiam pervenlre (Fain, 
xii. 14. 2), I seem to have brought it about that Dolabella cannot come into 
Italy. 

Note 1. — This construction emphasizes the result ; the regular sequence of tenses 
rould subordinate it. 

Note 2. — There is a special fondness for the Perfect Subjunctive to represent a 
Perfect Indicative : — 

Thorius erat ita non superstitiosus ut ilia plurima in sua patria et sacrificia et 
fana contemneret ; ita non timidus ad mortem ut in acie sit ob rem publicam 
interfectus (Fin. ii. 63), Thorius teas so little superstitious that he despised 
[contemnebat] the many sacrifices and shrines in his country ; so little timor- 
ous about death that he was killed [interfectus est] in battle, in defence of 
the state. 

d. A general truth after a past tense follows the sequence of tenses : 
ex his quae tribuisset, sibi quam mutabilis esset reputabat (Q. C. iii. 8. 20), 

from what she (Fortune) had bestowed on him, he reflected how inconstant 
she is. [Direct : mutabilis est. ] 
ibi quantam vim ad stimulandos animos Ira haberet apparuit (Liv. xxxiii. 37), 
here it appeared what power anger has to goad the mind. [Direct : habet. ] 
Note. — In English the original tense is more commonly kept. 

e. The Historical Present (§ 469) is sometimes felt as a primary, 
sometimes as a secondary tense, and accordingly it takes either the 
primary or the secondary sequence : — 

rogat ut ciiret quod dixisset (Quinct. 18), he asks him to attend to the thing he 
had spoken of. [Both primary and secondary sequence.] 
Note. — After the historical present, the subjunctive with cum temporal must 
follow the secondary sequence : — 

quo cum venisset cognoscit (B. C. i. 34), when he had come there he learns. 
cum esset pugnatum horis quinque, nostrique gravius premerentur, impetum in 
cohortis faciunt (id. i. 46), when they had fought for five hours, and our 
men were pretty hard pressed, they make an attack on the cohorts. 

f. The Historical Infinitive regularly takes the secondary se- 
quence : — 

interim cotldie" Caesar Haeduos frumentum, quod essent polliciti, flagitare 
(B. G. i. 16), meanwhile Caesar demanded of the Hoedui every day the grain 
which they had promised. 



306 SYNTAX: THE VERB [§485 

g. The Imperfect and Pluperfect in conditions contrary to fact 
(§ 517) and in the Deliberative Subjunctive (§ 444) are not affected 
by the sequence of tenses : — 

quia tale sit, ut vel si ignorarent id homines vel si obmutuissent (Fin. ii. 49), 
because it is such that even if men were ignorant of it, or had been 
silent about it. 

quaero a te cur C. Cornelium non defenderem (Vat. 5), I ask you why I was 
not to defend Caius Cornelius ? [Direct : cur non defenderem ?] 

h. The Imperfect Subjunctive in present conditions contrary to 
fact (§ 517) is regularly followed by the secondary sequence : — 

si alii consules essent, ad te potissimum, Paule, mitterem, ut eos mini quam 
amlcissimos redderes (Fam. xv. 13. 3), if there were other consuls, I should 
send to you, Paulus, in preference to all, that you might make them as 
' friendly to me as possible. 

si solos eos diceres miseros quibus moriendum esset, neminem exciperes 
(Tusc. i. 9), if you were to call only those wretched who must die, you 
would except no one. 

i. The Present is sometimes followed by a secondary sequence, 
seemingly because the writer is thinking of past time : — 

sed si res coget, est quiddam tertium, quod neque Selicio nee inihi displice- 
bat: ut neque iacere rem pateremur, etc. (Fam. i. 5 a. 3), but if the case 
shall demand, there is a third [course] which neither Selicius nor myself 
disapproved, that we should not allow, etc. [Here Cicero is led by the 
time of displicebat. ] 

sed tamen ut scires, haec tibi scrlbo (Fam. xiii. 47), but yet that you may know, I 
write thus. [As if he had used the epistolary imperfect scribebam (§ 479). ] 

cuius praeceptl tanta vis est ut ea non homini cuipiam sed Delphico deo 
tribueretur (Legg. i. 58), such is the force of this precept, that it was 
ascribed not to any man, but to the Delphic god. [The precept was an 
old one.] 

j. When a clause depends upon one already dependent, its se- 
quence may be secondary if the verb of that clause expresses past 
time, even if the main verb is in a primary tense : — 

sed tamen qua re accident ut ex meis superioribus litteris id suspicarere nescio 

(Fam. ii. 16), but yet how it happened that you suspected this from my 

previous letter, I don't know. 
tantum pr5fecisse videmur ut a Graecis ne verborum quidem copia vincere- 

mur (N. D. i. 8), we seem to have advanced so far that even in abundance 

of words we are not surpassed by the Greeks. 

Note. — So regularly after a Perfect Infinitive which depends on a primary tense 
(§585. a). 



§486] TENSES OF THE INFINITIVE 307 

TENSES OF THE INFINITIVE 

486. Except in Indirect Discourse, only the Present and Per- 
fect Infinitives are used. 

The Present represents the action of the verb as in progress with- 
out distinct reference to time, the Perfect as completed. 

For the Tenses of the Infinitive in Indirect Discourse see § 584. 

a. With past tenses of verbs of necessity, propriety, and possibility 
(as debui, oportuit, potui), the Present Infinitive is often used in 
Latin where the English idiom prefers the Perfect Infinitive : — 

numne, si Coriolanus habuit amlcos, ferre contra patriam arrna illi cum 

Coriolano debuerunt (Lael. 36), if Coriolanus had friends, ought they to 

have borne anns with him against their fatherland f 
pecunia, quani his oportuit civitatibus pro frumento dari (Verr. iii. 174), 

money which ought to have been paid to these states for grain. 
consul esse qui potui, nisi eum vitae cursum tenuissem a pueritia (Rep. i. 10), 

how could I have become consul had I not from boyhood followed that 

course of life ? 

b. With verbs of necessity, propriety, and possibility, the Perfect 
Infinitive may be used to emphasize the idea of completed action : — 

tametsi statim vicisse debeo (Rose. Am. 73), although I ought to win my case 

at once (to be regarded as having won it), 
bellum quod possumus ante hiemem perfecisse (Li v. xxxvii. 19. 5), a war 

which we can have completed before winter. 
nil ego, si peccem, possum nescisse (Ov. H. xvi. 47), if I should go wrong, 

I cannot have done it in ignorance (am not able not to have known). 

Note. — With the past tenses of these verbs the perfect infinitive is apparently- 
due to attraction : — 

quod iam pridem factum esse oportuit (Cat. i. 5), (a thing) which ought to have 

been done long ago. 
haec facta ab illo oportebat (Ter. Haut. 536), this ought to have been done by him. 
turn decuit metuisse (Aen. x. 94), then was the time to fear (then you should have 
feared) . 

c. In archaic Latin and in legal formulas the Perfect Active Infini- 
tive is often used with nolo or volo in prohibitions : — 

Chaldaeum nequem consuluisse velit (Cato R. R. v. 4), let him not venture to 

have consulted a soothsayer. 
nolito devellisse (PI. Poen. 872), do not have them plucked. 
nequis humasse velit Aiacem (Hor. S. ii. 3. 187), let no one venture to have 

buried Ajax. K 

neiqvis eorvm bacanal habvise velet (S. C. de Bac. 1), let no one of them 

venture to have had a place for Bacchanalian worship. 



308 SYNTAX: THE VERB [§486 

d. With verbs of wishing 1 the Perfect Passive Infinitive (com- 
monly without esse) is often used emphatically instead of the Present: 

domes tica cura te levatum volo (Q. Fr. iii. 9. 3), I wish you relieved of private 

care. 
illos monitos volo (Cat. ii. 27), I wish them thoroughly warned. 
qui illam [patriam] exstinctam cupit (Fin. iv. 66), who is eager for her utter 

destruction. 
illud te esse admonitum volo (Gael. 8), I wish you to be well advised of this. 
qui se ab omnibus desertos potius quam abs te defensSs esse malunt (CaeciL 

21), who prefer to be deserted by all rather than to be defended by you. 

Note. — The participle in this case is rather in predicate agreement (with or with- 
out esse) than used to form a strict perfect infinitive, though the full form can hardly 
be distinguished from that construction. 

e. In late Latin, and in poetry (often for metrical convenience), 
rarely in good prose, the Perfect Active Infinitive is used emphatically 
instead of the Present, and even after other verbs than those of wish- 
ing : — 

nemo eorum est qui non perisse te cupiat (Verr. ii. 149), there is no one of 
them who is not eager for your death. 

haud equidem premendo alium me extulisse velim (Liv. xxii. 59. 10), J 
would not by crushing another exalt myself. 

sunt qui noiint tetigisse (Hor. S. i. 2. 28), there are those who would not touch, 

commisisse cavet (Hor. A. P. 168), he is cautious of doing. 

nunc quern tetigisse timerent, anguis eras (Ov. M. viii. 733), again you be- 
came a serpent which they dreaded to touch. 

fratresque tendentes opaco Pelion imposuisse Olympo (Hor. Od. iii. 4. 51), 
and the brothers striving to set Pelion on dark Olympus. 

f. After verbs of feeling the Perfect Infinitive is used, especially 
by the poets, to denote a completed action. 

So also with satis est, satis habeo, melius est, contentus sum, and in 
a few other cases where the distinction of time is important : — 

non paenitebat intercapedinem scrlbendl fecisse (Fam. xvi. 21), I was not 

sorry to have made a respite of writing. 
pudet me non praestitisse (id. xiv. 3), I am ashamed not to have shown. 
sunt quos pulverem Olympicum collegisse iuvat (Hor. Od. i. 1. 3), some 

delight to have stirred up the dust at Olympia. 
quiesse erit melius (Liv. iii. 48), it will be better to have kept quiet. 
ac si quis amet scripsisse (Hor. S. i. 10. 60), than if one should choose to have 

written. 
id s5lum dixisse satis habeo (Veil. ii. 124), I am content to have said only 

this. 

1 Vol5, and less frequently nolo, malo, and cupio. 



§§ 487-490] 



PARTICIPLES 



309 



NOUN AND ADJECTIVE FORMS OF THE VERB 

487. The several Noun and Adjective forms associated with the verb are employed 
as follows: — 1 

( 1. Attributive (§494). 

2. Simple Predicate (§495). 

3. Periphrastic Perfect (passive) (§495. n.). 

4. Predicate of Circumstance (§ 496). 

5. Descriptive (Indirect Discourse) (§ 497 d). 

1. Periphrastic with esse (§498. a). 

2. Periphrastic with fui (= Pluperfect Subjunc- 
tive) (§498. b). 

1. As Descriptive Adjective (§500. 1). 

2. Periphrastic with esse (§500. 2). 

3. Of Purpose with certain verbs (§ 500. 4). 

1. Genitive as Subjective or Objective Genitive (§504). 

2. Dative, with Adjectives (of Fitness), Nouns, Verbs (§505). 

3. Accusative, with certain Prepositions (§ 506) . 
I 4. Ablative, of Means, Comparison, or with Prepositions (§507). 



I. Participles: 



Present and 
Perfect : 



b. Future 



c. Gerundive 



II. 



Gerund or 
Gerundive : 



III. Supine: 



| 1. Accusative Supine (in -urn), with Verbs of Motion (§ 509). 
{ 2. Ablative Supine (in -u), chiefly with Adjectives (§510). 



PARTICIPLES 

488. The Participle expresses the action of the verb in the form 
of an Adjective, but has a partial distinction of tense and may 
govern a case. 

Note. — Thus the participle combines all the functions of an adjective with some 
of the functions of a verb. As an Adjective, it limits substantives and agrees with 
them in gender, number, and case (§286). As a Verb, it has distinctions of time 
(§ 489) and often takes an object. 

Distinctions of Tense in Participles 

489. Participles denote time as present, past, or future with 
respect to the time of the verb in their clause. 

Thus the Present Participle represents the action as in progress at 
the time indicated by the tense of the verb, the Perfect as completed, 
and the Future as still to take place, 

490. The Present Participle has several of the special uses of 
the Present Indicative. Thus it may denote — 

1. An action continued in the present but begun in the past (§ 466) : 
quaerenti mihi iam dm certa res nulla veniebat in mentem (Fam. iv. 13), 
though I had long sought, no certain thing came to my mind. 



1 For the Syntax of the Infinitive, see §§ 451 ff., 486. 



310 SYNTAX : THE VERB [§§ 490-493 

2. Attempted action (§ 467) : — 

C. Elaminio restitit agrum PIcentem dividenti (Cat. M. 11), he resisted Fla- 
minius when attempting to divide the Picene territory. 

3. Rarely (in poetry and later Latin) futurity or purpose, with a 
verb of motion : — 

Eurypylum scitantem oracula mittimus (Aen. ii. 114), we send Eurypylus to 
consult the oracle. [Cf. § 468.] 

491. The Perfect Participle of a few deponent verbs is used 
nearly in the sense of a Present. 

Such are, regularly, ratus, solitus, veritus; commonly, arbitratus, 
fisus, ausus, secutus, and occasionally others, especially in later 
writers : — 

rem incredibilem rati (Sail. Cat. 48), thinking the thing incredible. 

Insidias veritus (B. G. ii. 11), fearing an ambuscade. 

cohortatus milites docuit (B. C. iii. 80), encouraging the men, he showed. 

iratus dixisti (Mur. 62), you spoke in a passion. 

ad pugnam congress! (Liv. iv. 10), meeting in fight. 

492. The Latin has no Present Participle in the passive. 

The place of such a form is supplied usually by a clause with dum 
or cum : — 

obiere dum calciantur matutino duo Caesares (Plin. N. H. vii. 181), two 
Ccesars died while having their shoes put on in the morning. 

meque ista delectant cum Latine dicuntur (Acad. i. 18), those things please 
me when they are spoken in Latin. 

Note. — These constructions are often used when a participle might be employed : — 
die, hospes, Spartae nos te hie vidisse iacentis, dum Sanctis patriae legibus obse- 
quimur (Tusc. i. 101), tell it, stranger, at Sparta, that you saw us lying here 
obedient to our country's sacred laws. [Here dum obsequimur is a transla- 
tion of the Greek present participle TreiOSfievot,.'] 
dum [Ulixes] sibi, dum sociis reditum parat (Hor. Ep. i. 2. 21), Ulysses, while 
securing the return of himself and his companions. [In Greek: apvij/uLevos.] 

493. The Latin has no Perfect Participle in the active voice. 
The deficiency is supplied — 

1. In deponents by the perfect passive form with its regular active 
meaning : — 

nam singulis [navis] nostri consectati expugnaverunt (B. G. iii. 15), for our 
men, having overtaken them one by one, captured them by boarding. 

Note. — The perfect participle of several deponent verbs may be either active or 
passive in meaning (J 190, It), 



§§493-495] USES OF PARTICIPLES 311 

2. In other verbs, either by the perfect passive participle in the 
ablative absolute (§ 420. n.) or by a temporal clause (especially with 
cum or postquam) : — 

itaque convocatis centuriSnibus milites certiores facit (B. G. iii. 5), and so, 
having called the centurions together, he informs the soldiers (the centu- 
rions having been called together). 

cum venisset animadvertit collem (id. vii. 44), having come (when he had 
come), he noticed a hill. 

postquam id animum advertit copias suas Caesar in proximum collem subducit 
(B. G. i. 24), having observed this (after he had observed this) Ccesar 
led his troops to the nearest hill. 

Uses of Participles 

494. The Present and Perfect Participles are sometimes used 

as attributives, nearly like adjectives : — 

aeger et flagrans animus (Tac. Ann. iii. 54), his sick and passionate mind. 
cum antiquissiinam sententiam turn comprobatam (Div. i. 11), a view at once 

most ancient and well approved. 
signa numquam fere mentientia (id. i. 15), signs hardly ever deceitful. 
auspiciis utuntur coactis (id. i. 27), they use forced auspices. 

a. Participles often become complete adjectives, and may be com- 
pared, or used as nouns : — 

quo mulieri esset res cautior (Caec. 11), that the matter might be more secure 

for the woman. 
in illis artibus praestantissimus (De Or. i. 217), preeminent in those arts. 
sibi indulgentes et corporl deservientes (Legg. i. 39), the self-indulgent, and 

slaves to the body (indulging themselves &nd serving the body), 
recte facta paria essedebent (Par. 22), right deeds (things rightly done) ought 

to be like in value (see § 321. b). 
male parta male dilabuntur (Phil. ii. 65), ill got, ill spent (things ill acquired 

are ill spent), 
consuetiido valentis (De Or. ii. 186), the habit of a man in health. 

495. Participles are often used as Predicate Adjectives. As 
such they may be joined to the subject by esse or a copulative verb 

(see §283): — 

Gallia est divisa (B. G. i. 1), Gaul is divided. 

locus qui nunc saeptus est (Liv. i. 8), the place which is now enclosed. 

videtis ut senectus sit operosa et semper agens aliquid et moliens (Cat. M. 26), 

you see how busy old age is, always aiming and trying at something. 
nemo adhuc con venire me voluit cui fuerim occupatus (id. 32), nobody 

hitherto has [ever] wished to converse with me, to whom I have been 



312 SYNTAX: THE VERB [§§495,496 

Note. — From this predicate use arise the compound tenses of the passive, — the 
participle of completed action with the incomplete tenses of esse developing the idea 
of past time : as, interfectus est, he was (or has been) killed, lit. he is having-been-killed 
(i.e. already slain). 

The perfect participle used with fui etc. was perhaps originally an intensified expres- 
sion in the popular language for the perfect, pluperfect, etc. 

At times these forms indicate a state of affairs no longer existing : — 
cotem quoque eodem loco sitam fuisse memorant (Liv. i. 36. 5), they say that a 
whetstone was (once) deposited in this same place. [At the time of writing 
it was no longer there.] 
arma quae fixa in parietibus fuerant, hum! inventa sunt (Div. i. 74), the arms 
which had been fastened on the walls were found upon the ground. 
But more frequently they are not to be distinguished from the forms with sum etc. 

The construction is found occasionally at all periods, but is most common in Livy 
and later writers. 

496. The Present and Perfect Participles are often used as a 
predicate, where in English a phrase or a subordinate clause would 
be more natural. 

In this use the participles express time, cause, occasion, condition, 
concession, characteristic (or description), manner, means, attendant 
circumstances : — 

volventes hostilia cadavera amicum reperiebant (Sail. Cat. 61), while rolling 

over the corpses of the enemy they found a friend. [Time.] 
paululum commoratus, slgna canere iubet (id. 59), after delaying a little while, 

he orders them to give the signal. [Time.] 
longius prosequi veritus, ad Ciceronem pervenit (B. G. v. 52), because he 

feared to follow further, he came to Cicero. [Cause.] 
qui sclret laxas dare iussus habenas (Aen. i. 63), who might know how to 

give them loose rein when bidden. [Occasion.] 
damnatum poenam sequl oportebat (B. G. i. 4), if condemned, punishment 

must overtake him. [Condition.] 
salutem insperantibus reddidistl (Marc. 21), you have restored a safety for 

which we did not hope (to [us] not hoping). [Concession.] 
Dardanius caput ecce puer detectus (Aen. x. 133), the Trojan boy with his 

head uncovered. [Description.] 
nee trepides in usum poscentis aevi pauca (Hor. Od. ii. 11. 5), be not anxious 

for the needs of age that demands little. [Characteristic] 
incitati fuga montls altissimos petebant (B. C. iii. 93), in headlong flight they 

made for the highest mountains. [Manner.] 
milites sublevatl alii ab alils magnam partem itineris conficerent (id. i. 68), 

the soldiers, helped up by each other, accomplished a considerable part of 

the route. [Means.] 
hoc laudans, Pompeius idem iuravit (id. iii. 87), approving this, Pompey took 

the same oath. [Attendant Circumstance. ] 
aut sedens aut ambulans disputabam (Tusc. i. 7), I conducted the discussion 

either sitting or walking. [Attendant Circumstance.] 



§§ 496, 497] USES OF PARTICIPLES 313 

Note 1. — These uses are especially frequent in the Ablative Absolute (§ 420). 
Note 2. — A coordinate clause is sometimes compressed into a perfect participle : — 
instructos ordines in locum aequum deducit (Sail. Cat. 59), he draws up the lines, 

and leads them to level ground. 
ut hos traductos necaret (B. G. v. 6), that he might carry them over and put them 
to death. 
Note 3. — A participle with a negative often expresses the same idea which in 
English is given by without and a verbal noun: as, — miserum est nihil proficientem 
angi (N. D. iii. 14), it is wretched to vex oneself without effecting anything. 

Note 4. — Acceptum and expensum as predicates with ferre and referre are book- 
keeping terms: as, — quas pectinias ferebat eis expensas (Verr. ii. 170), vjhal sums he 
charged to them. 

497. A noun and a passive participle are often so united that 
the participle and not the noun contains the main idea : — 1 

ante conditam condendamve urbem (Liv. Pref.), before the city was built or 

building. 
ill! libertatem imminutam civium Romanorum non tulerunt; vos ereptam 
vltam neglegetis (Manil. 11), they did not endure the infringement of the 
citizens' liberty ; will you disregard the destruction of their lives ? 
post natos homines (Brut. 224), since the creation of man. 
iam a condita urbe (Phil. iii. 9), even from the founding of the city. 

a. The perfect participle with a noun in agreement, or in the 
neuter as an abstract noun, is used in the ablative with opus, need 
(cf. §411. a): — 

opus facts est viatico (PL Trin. 887), there is need of laying in provision. 
maturato opus est (Liv. viii. 13. 17), there is need of haste. 

b. The perfect participle with habeo (rarely with other verbs) has 
almost the same meaning as a perfect active, but denotes the contin- 
ued effect of the action of the verb : — 2 

fidem quam habent spectatam iam et diu cSgnitam (Caecil. 11), my fidelity, 

which they have proved and long known. 
cohortis in acie lxxx constitutes habebat (B. C. iii. 89), he had eighty cohorts 

stationed in line of battle. 
nefarios duces captos iam et comprehensos tenetis (Cat. iii. 16), you have now 

captured the infamous leaders and hold them in custody. 

c. A verb of effecting or the like may be used in combination with 
the perfect participle of a transitive verb to express the action of that 
verb more forcibly : — 

1 Compare the participle in indirect discourse in Greek (Goodwin's Greek Grammar, 
§ 1588) ; and the English " 'T was at the royal feast for Persia ivon" (Dryden), i.e. for 
the conquest of Persia. 

2 The perfect with have, in modern languages of Latin stock, has grown out of this 
use of habeo. 



314 SYNTAX : THE VERB [§§ 497-499 

praefectos suos multl missos fecerunt (Verr. iii. 134), many discharged their 

officers (made dismissed), 
hie transactum reddet omne (PL Capt. 345), he will get it all done (restore it 

finished) . 
ademptum tibi iam fax5 omnem metum (Ter. Haut. 341), I will relieve you 

of all fear (make it taken away), 
illam tibi incensam dabo (Ter. Ph. 974), I will make her angry with you. 
Note. — Similarly void (with its compounds) and cupio, with a perfect participle 
without esse (cf. § 486. d). 

d* After verbs denoting an action of the senses the present partici- 
ple in agreement with the object is nearly equivalent to the infinitive 
of indirect discourse (§ 580), but expresses the action more vividly : 

ut eum nemo umquam in equo sedentem vlderit (Verr. v. 27), so that no one 
ever saw him sitting on a horse. [Cf. Tusc. iii. 31.] 

Note. — The same construction is used after facio, induco, and the like, with the 
name of an author as subject: as, — Xenophon facit Socratem disputantem (N. D. i. 
31), Xenophon represents Socrates disputing. 

Future Participle (Active) 

498. The Future Participle (except futurus and venturus) is 
rarely used in simple agreement with a noun, except by poets 
and later writers. 

a. The future participle is chiefly used with the forms of esse 
(often omitted in the infinitive) in the Active Periphrastic Conjuga- 
tion (see § 195) : — 

morere, Diagora, non enim in caelum adscensurus es (Tusc. i. Ill), die, 

Diagoras, for you are not likely to rise to heaven. 
sperat adulescens dm se victurum (Cat. M. 68), the young man hopes to live 

long (that he shall live long), 
neque petiturus umquam consulatum videretur (Off. iii. 79), and did not seem 

likely ever to be a candidate for the consulship. 

b. With the past tenses of esse in the indicative, the future parti- 
ciple is often equivalent to the pluperfect subjunctive (§ 517. d). 
For futurum fuisse, see § 589. b. 

499. By later writers and the poets the Future Participle is 
often used in simple agreement with a substantive to express — 

1. Likelihood or certainty : — 
rem ausus plus famae habituram (Liv. ii. 10), having dared a thing which would 
have more repute. 



§§ 499, 500] GERUNDIVE 315 

2. Purpose, intention, or readiness : — 

egreditur castrls Komanus vallum invasurus (Liv. iii. 60. 8), the Roman comes 
out of the camp with the intention of attacking the rampart. 

dispersos per agros mllites equitibus invasuris (id. xxxi. 36), while the horse 
were ready to attack the soldiers scattered through the fields. 

si periturus abls (Aen. ii. 675), if you are going away to perish. 

3. Apodosis : — 

dedit mihi quantum maximum potuit, daturus amplius si potuisset (Plin. Ep. 
iii. 21. 6), he gave me as much as he could, ready to give me more if he 
had been able. [Here daturus is equivalent to dedisset.] 

Gerundive (Future Passive Participle) 

Note. — The participle in -dus, commonly called the Gerundive, has two distinct 
uses : — 

(1) Its predicate and attribute use as Participle or Adjective (§ 500). 

(2) Its use with the meaning of the Gerund (§ 503). This may be called its gerun- 
dive use. 

500. The Gerundive when used as a Participle or an Adjective 
is always passive, denoting necessity, obligation, or propriety. 

In this use of the Gerundive the following points are to be 
observed : — 

1. The gerundive is sometimes used, like the present and perfect 
participles, in simple agreement with a noun : — 

fortem et conservandum virum (Mil. 104), a brave man, and worthy to be pre- 
served. 

gravis iniuria facta est et non ferenda (Flacc. 84), a grave and intolerable 
wrong has been done. 

2. The most frequent use of the gerundive is with the forms of esse 
in the Second (or passive) Periphrastic Conjugation (see § 196) : — 

non agitanda res erit (Yerr. v. 179), will not the thing have to be agitated? 

3. The neuter gerundive of both transitive and intransitive verbs 
may be used impersonally in the second periphrastic conjugation. 

With verbs that take the dative or ablative, an object may be ex- 
pressed in the appropriate case ; with transitive verbs, an object in 
the accusative is sometimes found : — 

tempori serviendum est (Fam. ix. 7. 2), one must obey the time. 

legibus parendum est, the laws must be obeyed. 

utendum exercitationibus modicis (Cat. M. 36), we must use moderate exercise. 

agitandumst vigilias (PL Trin. 869), I have got to stand guard. 

via quam nobis ingrediendum sit (Cat. M. 6), the way we have to enter. 



316 SYNTAX : THE VERB [§§ 500-503 

4. After verbs signifying to give, deliver, agree for, have, receive, 
undertake, demand, 1 a gerundive in agreement with the object is used 
to express purpose : — 

redemptor qui columnam illam condtixerat faciendam (Div. ii. 47), the con- 
tractor who had undertaken to make that column. [The regular construc- 
tion with this class of verbs. ] 
aedem Castoris habuit tuendam (Verr. ii. 1. 150), he had the temple of Castor 

to take care of. 
navls atque onera adservanda curabat (id. v. 146), he took care that the ships 
and cargoes should be kept. 

GERUND 

501. The Gerund is the neuter of the Gerundive, used sub- 
stantiyely in the Genitive, Dative, Accusative, and Ablative. 

502. The Gerund expresses an action of the verb in the form 
of a verbal noun. 

As a noun the gerund is itself governed by other words ; as a 
verb it may take an object in the proper case : — 

ars bene disserendi et vera ac falsa diiudicandi (De Or. ii. 157), the art of dis- 
coursing well, and distinguishing the true and the false. 

Note. — The Nominative of the gerund is supplied by the Infinitive. Thus in the 
example above, the verbal nouns dAscoursing and distinguishing, if used in the nomi- 
native, would be expressed by the infinitives disserere and diiudicare. 

The Gerund is the neuter of the gerundive used impersonally, but retaining the 
verbal idea sufficiently to govern an object. It may therefore be regarded as a noun 
(cf. maturato opus est, §497. a) with a verbal force (cf. istanc tactio, p. 240, footnote). 

GERUND AND GERUNDIVE 

503. When the Gerund would have an object in the Accusa- 
tive, the Gerundive 2 is generally used instead. The gerundive 
agrees with its noun, which takes the case that the gerund would 
have had : — 

paratiores ad omnia perlcula subeunda (B. G. i. 5), readier to undergo all 
dangers. [Here subeunda agrees with perlcula, which is itself governed 
by ad. The (inadmissible) construction with the gerund would be ad 
subeundum perlcula ; ad governing the gerund, and the gerund governing 
the accusative perlcula.] For details, see §§ 504-507. 

1 Such verbs are accipio, adnoto, attribuo, conduco, euro, denoto, deposed, do, divido, 
dono, edico, edoceo, fero, habeo, loed, mando, obicio, permitto, peto, pono, praebeo, propono, 
relinquo, rogo, suscipio, trado, voveo. 

2 The gerundive construction is probably the original one. 



§§ 503, 504] GENITIVE OF GERUND AND GERUNDIVE 317 

Note 1. — In this use the gerund and the gerundive are translated in the same 
way, but have really a different construction. The gerundive is & passive participle, 
and agrees with its noun, though in translation we change the voice, just as we may 
translate vigiliae agitandae sunt (guard must be kept) by I must stand guard. 

Note 2. — In the gerundive construction the verbs utor, fruor, etc., are treated like 
transitive verbs governing the accusative, as they do in early Latin (§ 410. a. n. *) : as, 
— ad perfruendas voluptates (Off. i. 25), for enjoying pleasures. 

a. The following examples illustrate the parallel constructions of 
Gerund and Gerundive : — 

Gen. consilium j : \ a design of taking the city. 

Dat. dat operam J _ \ he attends to tilling the fields. 

. , ( mini parendum ) ,, (to obey me. 

Ace. veniunt ad < _ * J , > they come < . 

\ pacem petendam J [to seek peace. 

Abl. terit tempus -{ _ „ . A „ \ he spends time in writing letters. 
{ scribendis epistuhs J 

Note 1. — The gerund with a direct object is practically limited to the Genitive and 
the Ablative (without a preposition) ; even in these cases the gerundive is commoner. 

Note 2. — The gerund or gerundive is often found coordinated with nominal con- 
structions, and sometimes even in apposition with a noun : — 

(1) in foro, in curia, in amicorum periculis propulsandis (Phil. vii. 7), in the forum, 

in the senate-house, in defending my friends in jeopardy. 

(2) ad res diversissimas, parendum atque imperandum (Liv. xxi. 4), for the most 

widely different things, obeying and commanding. 

Genitive of the Gerund and Gerundive 

504. The Genitive of the Gerund and Gerundive is used after 
nouns or adjectives, either as subjective or objective genitive : — 

vivendi finis est optimus (Cat. M. 72), it is the best end of living. [Sub- 
jective.] 

neque consili habendi neque arma capiendi spatio dato (B. G. iv. 14), time being 
given neither for forming plans nor for taking arms. [Objective. ] 

non tam commutandarum quam evertendarum rerum cupidos (Off. ii. 3), desir- 
ous not so much of changing as of destroying the state. [Objective.] 

Note 1. — In these uses the gerund and the gerundive are about equally common. 
Note 2. — In a few phrases the Infinitive is used with nouns which ordinarily 
have the genitive of the gerund or gerundive: as, — tempus est abire, it is time to go. 

a. The genitive of the gerund sometimes takes a direct object, espe- 
cially a nenter pronoun or a neuter adjective used substantively : — 
nulla causa iusta cuiquam esse potest contra patriam arma capiendi (Phil. ii. 
53), no one can have a just cause for taking up arms against his country. 
artem vera ac falsa diiudicandi (De Or. ii. 157), the art of distinguishing true 
from false. 



318 SYNTAX: THE VERB [§§504,605 

Note Is — The genitive of the gerund or gerundive is used (especially in later Latin) 
as a predicate genitive. When so used it often expresses purpose : — 

quae postquani gloriosa modo neque belli patrandi cognovit (lug. 88), when he 
perceived that these were only brilliant deeds and not likely to end the war. 
Aegyptum proficiscitur cognoscendae antiquitatis (Tac. Ann. ii. 59), he sets out for 
Egypt to study old times. 

h. The genitive of the gerund or gerundive with causa or gratia 
expresses purpose (§ 533. b) : — 

pabulandi aut frumentandi causa progress! (B. C. i. 48), having advanced for 

the purpose of collecting fodder or supplies. 
vitandae suspicionis causa (Cat. i. 19), in order to avoid suspicion. 
simulandi gratia (lug. 37), in order to deceive. 
exercendae memoriae gratia (Cat. M. 38), for the sake of training the memory. 

c. The genitive of the gerund is occasionally limited by a noun or 
pronoun (especially a personal pronoun in the plural) in the objective 
genitive instead of taking a direct object : — 

reiciendi trium iudicum potestas (Yerr. ii. 77), the power of challenging three 

jurors (of the rejecting of three jurors). 
sui colligendl facultas (B. G. hi. 6), the opportunity to recover themselves. 

Dative of the Gerund and Gerundive 

505. The Dative of the Gerund and Gerundive is used in a few 
expressions after verbs : — 2 

diem praestitit operi faciendd (Verr. ii. 1. 148), he appointed a day for doing the 

work. 
praeesse agro colendS (Rose. Am. 50), to take charge of cultivating the land. 
esse solvendS, to be able to pay (to be for paying). 

Note. — The dative of the gerund with a direct object is never found in classic 
Latin, but occurs twice in Plautus. 

a. The dative of the gerund and gerundive is used after adjec- 
tives, 2 especially those which denote fitness or adaptability: — 

genus armorum aptum tegendis corporibus (Liv. xxxii. 10), a sort of armor 

suited to the defence of the body. 
reliqua tempora demetendis friictibus et percipiendis accommodatasunt (Cat. M. 

70), the other seasons are fitted to reap and gather in the harvest. 
perferendis militum mandatis id5neus (Tac. Ann. i. 23), suitable for carrying 
out the instructions of the soldiers. 

Note. — This construction is very common in Livy and later writers, infrequent 
in classical prose. 

1 Such are praeesse, operam dare, diem dicere, locum capere. 

2 Such are accommodatus, aptus, ineptus, bonus, habilis, idoneus, par, utilis, inutilis. 
But the accusative with ad is common with most of these (cf . § 385. a). 



§§505-507] ABLATIVE OF GERUND AND GERUNDIVE 319 

b. The dative of the gerund and gerundive is used in certain legal 
phrases after nouns meaning officers, offices, elections, etc., to indicate 
the function or scope of the office etc. : — 

comitia consulibus rogandis (Div. i. 33), elections for nominating consuls. 
triumvir coloniis deducundis (lug. 42), a triumvir for planting colonies. 
triumviri rei piiblicae constituendae (title of the Triumvirate), triumvirs (a com- 
mission of three) for settling the government. 

Accusative of the Gerund and Gerundive 

506. The Accusative of the Gerund and Gerundive is used 
after the preposition ad, to denote Purpose (cf. § 533): — 

me vocas ad scribendum (Or. 34), you summon me to write. 

vlvis non ad deponendam sed ad cdnfirmandam audaciam (Cat. i. 4), you live 

not to put off but to confirm your daring. 
nactus adittis ad ea conanda (B. C. i. 31), having found means to undertake 
these things. 
Note 1. — Other prepositions appear in this construction ; inter and ob a few times, 
circa, in, ante, and a few others very rarely: as, inter agendum (Eel. ix. 24), while 
driving. 

Note 2. — The Accusative of the gerund with a preposition never takes a direct 
object in classic Latin. 

Ablative of the Gerund and Gerundive 

507. The Ablative of the Gerund and Gerundive is used (1) 
to express manner, 1 means, cause, etc.; (2) after Comparatives; 
and (3) after the propositions ab, de, ex, in, and (rarely) pro : — 

(1) multa pollicendo persuadet (lug. 46), he persuades by large promises. 
Latine loquendo cuivis par (Brut. 128), equal to any man in speaking Latin. 
his ipsls tegendls (Cat. M. 21), by reading these very things. 

obscuram atque humilem conciendo ad se multitudinem (Liv. i. 8), calling to 
them a mean and obscure multitude. 

(2) nullum officium referenda gratia magis necessarium est (Off. i. 47), no duty 

is more important than repaying favors. 

(3) in re gerenda versarl (Cat. M. 17), to be employed in conducting affairs. 

Note 1. — The Ablative of the Gerund and Gerundive is also very rarely used 
with verbs and adjectives: as, — nee continuando abstitit magistrate (Liv. ix. 34), he 
did not desist from continuing his magistracy. 

Note 2. — The ablative of the gerund rarely takes a direct object in classic prose. 

1 In this use the ablative of the gerund is, in later writers nearly, and in mediaeval 
writers entirely, equivalent to a present participle : as, — cum una dierum flendo sedis-- 
set, quidam miles generosus iuxta earn equitando venit (Gesta Romanorum, 66 [58]), 
as one day she sat weeping, a certain knight came riding by (compare § 507, fourth 
example) . Hence come the Italian and Spanish forms of the present participle (as man- 
dando, esperando), the true participial form becoming an adjective in those languages. 



320 SYNTAX : THE VERB [§§ 508-510 



SUPINE 

508. The Supine is a verbal abstract of the fourth declension (§ 94. 6), having no 
distinction of tense or person, and limited to two uses. (1) The form in -um is the 
Accusative of the end of motion (§ 428. i) . (2) The form in -u is usually Dative of pur- 
pose (§ 382), but the Ablative was early confused with it. 

509. The Supine in -um is used after verbs of motion to express 
purpose. It may take an object in the proper case : — 

quid est, Imusne sessum ? etsl admonitum venimus te, non flagitatum (De Or. 

iii. 17), how now, shall we be seated ? though we have come to remind, not 

to entreat you. 
nuptum dare (collocare), to give in marriage. 
venerunt questum iniurias (Liv. iii. 25), they came to complain of wrongs. 

Note 1. — The supine in -um is especially common withed, and with the passive 
infinitive in forms the future infinitive passive : — 

fuere elves qui rem publicam perditum irent (Sail. Cat. 36), there were citizens who 

went about to ruin the republic. 
si sciret se trucidatum Iri (Div. ii. 22), if he (Pompey) had known that he ivas 
going to be murdered. [Rare except in Cicero. For the more usual way of 
expressing the future passive infinitive, see § 569. 3. «.] 
Note 2. — The supine in -um is occasionally used when motion is merely implied. 

510. The Supine in-u 1 is used with a few adjectives and with 
the nouns fas, nefas, and opus, to denote an action in reference to 
which the quality is asserted : — 

rem non modo visu foedam, sed etiam audita (Phil. ii. 63), a thing not only 

shocking to see, but even to hear of. 
quaerunt quid optimum factu sit (Verr. ii. 1. 68), they ask what is best to do. 
si hoc fas est dictu (Tusc. v. 38), if this is lawful to say. 
videtis nefas esse dictu miseram fuisse talem senectutem (Cat. M. 13), you 

see it is a sin to say that such an old age was wretched. 

Note 1. — The supine in -u is thus in appearance an Ablative of Specification (§ 418) . 

Note 2. — The supine in -u is found especially with such adjectives as indicate an 

effect on the senses or the feelings, and those which denote ease, difficulty, and the 

like. But with facilis, dimcilis, and iucundus, ad with the gerund is more common : — 

nee visu facilis nee dictu adfabiiis ulli (Aen, iii. 621), he is not pleasant for any 

man to look at or address. 
dirficilis ad distinguendum similitudo (De Or. ii. 212), a likeness difficult to dis- 
tinguish. 
Note 3. —With all these adjectives the poets often use the Infinitive in the same 
sense: as, — faciles aurem praebere (Prop. ii. 21. 15), indulgent to lend an ear. 

Note 4. — The supine in -ii with a verb is extremely rare: as, — pudet dictu (Tac. 
Agr. 32), it is a shame to tell. [On the analogy of pudendum dictu.] 

1 The only common supines in -u are auditu, dictu, factu, inventu, memoratu, natii, 
visu. In classic use this supine is found in comparatively few verbs. It is nevei 
followed by an object-case. 



§511] CONDITIONAL SENTENCES 321 



CONDITIONAL SENTENCES 

511. The Conditional Sentence differs from other complex sentences in this, that 
the form of the main clause (apodosis) is determined in some degree by the nature 
of the subordinate clause (protasis) upon the truth of which the whole statement 
depends. Like all complex sentences, however, the Conditional Sentence has arisen 
from the use of two independent sentence-forms to express the parts of a thought 
which was too complicated to be fully expressed by a simple sentence. But because 
the thoughts thus expressed are in reality closely related, as parts of a single whole, the 
sentences which represent them are also felt to be mutually dependent, even though 
the relation is not expressed by any connecting word. Thus, Speak the word : my ser- 
vant shall be healed is a simpler and an earlier form of expression than If thou speak 
the wordy etc. 

The Conditional Particles were originally pronouns without conditional mean- 
ing: thus, si, if, is a weak demonstrative of the same origin as sic, so (si-ce like 
lri-ce, see § 215. 5), and had originally the meaning of in that way, or in some way. 
Its relative sense (if) seems to have come from its use with sic to make a pair of correla- 
tives : thus . . . thus (see § 512. 6). 

In its origin the Conditional Sentence assumed one of two forms. The condition 
was from the first felt to be a condition, not a fact or a command ; but, as no special 
sentence-form for a condition was in use, it employed for its expression either a state- 
ment of fact (with the Indicative) or a form of mild command (the Subjunctive). 
From the former have come all the rises of the Indicative in protasis ; from the latter 
all the uses of the Subjunctive in protasis. The Apodosis has either (1) the Indicative, 
expressing the conclusion as a fact, and the Present and Perfect Subjunctive, express- 
ing it originally as future — and hence more or less doubtful — or (2) the Imperfect 
and Pluperfect Subjunctive expressing it asfuturum in praeterito, 1 and so unfulfilled 
in the present or past. Thus, — rides, maiore cachinno concutitur, you laugh, he shakes 
with more boisterous laughter, is the original form for the Indicative in protasis and 
apodosis ; si rides originally means merely you laugh in some way or other, and so, 
later, if you laugh. So roges Aristonem, neget, ask Aristo, he would say no, is the 
original form of the subjunctive in protasis and apodosis ; si roges would mean ask in 
some way or other. In si rogares, negaret, the Imperfect rogares transfers the command 
of roges to past time, 2 with the meaning suppose you had asked, and si would have the 
same meaning as before ; while negaret transfers the future idea of neget to past time, 
and means he was going to deny. Now the stating of this supposition at all gives 
rise to the implication that it is untrue in point of fact, — because, if it were true, 
there would ordinarily be no need to state it as a supposition : for it would then be a 
simple fact, and as such would be put in the indicative. 3 Such a condition or conclusion 

i The futurum in praeterito is a tense future relatively to a time absolutely past. 
It denotes a future act transferred to the point of view of past time, and hence is 
naturally expressed by a past tense of the Subjunctive : thus dlxisset, he would have 
said = &icturus fuit, he was about to say [but did not]. As that which looks towards 
the future from some point in the past has a natural limit in present time, such a 
tense (the imperfect subjunctive) came naturally to be used to express a present con- 
dition purely ideal, that is to say, contrary to fact. 

2 Compare potius diceret, he should rather have said (§ 439. b). 

3 There are, however, some cases in which this implication does not arise : as, — 
deciens centena dedisses, nil erat in loculis (Hor. S. i. 3. 15), if you'd given him a mil- 
lion, there ivas nothing in his coffers. 



322 SYNTAX: CONDITIONAL SENTENCES [§§511,512 

(originally past, meaning suppose you had ashed [yesterday], he was going to deny) 
came to express an unfulfilled condition in the present: suppose (or if) you were 
now asking, he would [now] deny — just as in English ought, which originally meant 
oived, 1 has come to express a present obligation. 

For the classification of Conditional Sentences, see § 513. 

PROTASIS AND APODOSIS 

512. A complete Conditional Sentence consists of two clauses, 
the Protasis and the Apodosis. 

The clause containing the condition is called the Protasis ; 
the clause containing the conclusion is called the Apodosis : — 

si qui exire volunt [protasis], conlvere possum [apodosis] (Cat. ii. 27), if 

any luish to depart, I can keep my eyes shut. 
si est in exsilio [protasis], quid amplius postulatis [apodosis] (Lig. 13), if 

he is in exile, what more do you ask f 

It should be carefully noted that the Apodosis is the main clause 
and the Protasis the dependent clause* 

a. The Protasis is regularly introduced by the conditional particle 

si, if, or one of its compounds. 

Note. — These compounds are sin, nisi, etiam si, etsi, tametsi, tamenetsi (see Condi- 
tional and Concessive Particles, p. 138). An Indefinite Relative, or any relative or 
concessive word, may also serve to introduce a conditional clause : see Conditional 
Relative Clauses (§§ 519, 542) ; Concessive Clauses (§ 527) . 

b. The Apodosis is often introduced by some correlative word oi 
phrase : as, ita, turn (rarely sic), or ea condicione etc.: — 

ita enim senecttis honesta est, si se ipsa defendit (Cat. M. 38), on this condi- 
tion is old age honorable, if it defends itself. 

si quidem me arnaret, turn istuc prodesset (Ter. Eun. 446), if he loved me, 
then this would be profitable. 

sic scribes aliquid, si vacabis (Att. xii. 38. 2), if you are (shall be) at leisure, 
then you will write something. 

c. The Apodosis is the principal clause of the conditional sen- 
tence, but may at the same time be subordinate to some other 
clause, and so appear in the form of a Participle, an Infinitive, or 
a Phrase : — 

sepulttira quoque prohibitiiri, ni rex human iussisset (Q. C. viii. 2. 12), intend- 
ing also to deprive him of burial, unless the king had ordered him to be 
interred. 

i " There was a certain lender which ought him five hundred pieces." — Tyndale's 
New Testament. 



§§512-514] CLASSIFICATION OF CONDITIONS 323 

quod si praeterea nem5 sequatur, tamen se cum sola deciuiS, legione iturum 
[esse] (B. G. i. 40. 14), but if no one else should follow, he would go with 
the tenth legion alone. 

si quos adversum proelium commoveret, hos reperire posse (id. 40. 8), if the 
loss of a battle alarmed any, they might find, etc. 

Note. — When the Apodosis itself is in Indirect Discourse, or in any other depend- 
ent construction, the verb of the Protasis is regularly in the Subjunctive (as in the above 
examples, see § 589). 

CLASSIFICATION OF CONDITIONS 

513. Conditions are either (1) Particular or (2) General. 

1. A Particular Condition refers to a definite act or series of acts 
occurring at some definite time. 

2. A General Condition refers to any one of a class of acts which 
may occur (or may have occurred) at any time. 

514. The principal or typical forms of Conditional Sentences 
may be exhibited as follows : — 

PARTICULAR CONDITIONS 

A. Simple Conditions (nothing implied as to fulfilment) 

i. Present Time 

Present Indicative in both clauses: — 
si adest, bene est, if he is [now] here, it is well. 

2. Past Time 

Imperfect or Perfect Indicative in both clauses: — 
si aderat, bene erat, if he was [then] here, it vms well. 
si adfuit, bene fuit, if he has been [was] here, it has been [was] well. 

B. Future Conditions (as yet unfulfilled) 
i. More Vivid 

a. Future Indicative in both clauses : — 

si aderit, bene erit, if he is (shall be) here, it will be well. 

b. Future Perfect Indicative in protasis, Future Indicative in 
apodosis : — 

si adfuerit, bene erit, if he is (shall have been) here, it will [then] be well. 



S£4 SYNTAX : CONDITIONAL SENTENCES [§ 614 

2. Less Vivid 

a. Present Subjunctive in both clauses: — 

si adsit, bene sit, if he should be (or were to be) here, it would be well. 

b. Perfect Subjunctive in protasis, Present Subjunctive in apod- 

osis: — 

si adfuerit, bene sit, if he should be (should have been) here, it would [then] 
be well. 

0. Conditions Contrary to Fact 

i. Present Time 

Imperfect Subjunctive in both clauses: — 
si adesset, bene esset, if he were [now] here, it would be well (but he is not here). 

2. Past Time 

Pluperfect Subjunctive in both clauses: — 
si adfuisset, bene fuisset, if he had [then] been here, it would have been loell 
(but he was not here). 

Note. — The use of tenses in Protasis is very loose in English. Thus if he is 
alive now is a present condition, to be expressed in Latin by the Present Indicative ; 
if he is alive next year is a future condition, expressed in Latin by the Future 
Indicative. Again, if he were here now is a present condition contrary to fact, 
and would be expressed by the Imperfect Subjunctive ; if he were to see me thus 
is a future condition less vivid, to be expressed by the Present Subjunctive ; and so 
too, if you advised him, he would attend may be future less vivid. 1 

D. GENERAL CONDITIONS 

General Conditions do not usually differ in form from Particular 
Conditions {A, B, and C), but are sometimes distinguished in the 
cases following : — 

I. Present General Condition (Indefinite Time) 

a. Present Subjunctive second person singular (Indefinite Subject) 
in protasis, Present Indicative in apodosis: — 

si h5c dicas, creditur, if any one [ever] says this, it is [always] believed. 

b. Perfect Indicative in protasis, Present Indicative in apodosis : 
si quid dixit, creditur, if he [ever] says anything, it is [always] believed. 

1 In most English verbs the Preterite (or Past) Subjunctive is identical in form 
with the Preterite Indicative. Thus in such a sentence as if he loved his father, he 
would not say this, the verb loved is really a Preterite Subjunctive, though this does 
not appear from the inflection. In the verb to be, however, the Subjunctive were has 
been preserved and differs in form from the indicative was. 



§§ 514, 515] SIMPLE PRESENT AND PAST CONDITIONS 325 

2. Past General Condition (Repeated Action in Past Time) 

a. Pluperfect Indicative in protasis, Imperfect Indicative in apod- 
osis : — 

si quid dixerat, credebatur, if he [ever] said anything, it was [always] believed. 

b. Imperfect Subjunctive in protasis, Imperfect Indicative inapod- 
osis : — 

si quid diceret, credebatur, if he [ever] said anything, it was [always] 
believed (= whatever he said was always believed). 1 

PARTICULAR CONDITIONS 
Simple Present and Past Conditions — Nothing Implied 

515. In the statement of Present and Past conditions whose 
falsity is not implied, the Present and Past tenses of the Indica- 
tive are used in both Protasis and Apodosis : — 

si tu exercitusque valetis, bene est (Fam. v. 2), if you and the army are well, 
it is well. [Present Condition. ] 

haec igitur, si Romae es ; sin abes, aut etiam si ades, haec negotia sic se habent 
(Att. v. 18), this, then, if you are at Rome; but if you are away — or even 
if you are there — these matters are as follows. [Present Condition.] 

si Caesarem probatis, in me offenditis (B. C. ii. 32. 10), if you favor Cozsar, 
you find fault with me. [Present Condition.] 

si qui magnls ingenils in eo genere exstiterunt, non satis GraecOrum glcriae 
responderunt (Tusc. i. 3), if any have shown themselves of great genius in 
that department, they have failed to compete with the glory of the Greeks. 
[Past General Condition, not distinguished in form from Particular.] 

accepi Roma sine epistula tua fasciculum litterarum in quo, si modo valuistl 
et Romae fuisti, Philotlml duco esse culpam n5n tuam (Att. v. 17), I have 
received from Borne a bundle of letters without any from you, which, pro- 
vided you hoive been well and at Rome, I take to be the fault of Philotimus, 
not yours. [Mixed : Past condition and Present conclusion.] 

quas litteras, si Romae es, videbis putesne reddendas (id. v. 18), as to this 
letter, if you are at Rome, you will see whether in your opinion it oughi 
to be delivered. [Mixed : Present and Future. ] 

si nemo impetravit, adroganter rogo (Lig. 30), if no one has succeeded in obtain- 
ing it, my request is presumptuous. [Past and Present.] 

1 Cf . the Greek forms corresponding to the various types of conditions : — 

A. 1. el irpdjcrei tovto, kclXus exct. 2. el eirpaacTe tovto, /caXws elxev. 

B. 1. edv wpdao-rj tovto, kclXws ££et. 2. el irpdcraoi tovto, kclX&s b\v exot. 
C 1. el ewpaaae tovto, /caXws hv etx €v ' 2. el eirpa^e tovto, /caXcDs Slp taxev. 
D. 1. idv tls icXe'irTrjy /coXd^erat. 2. et ris AcX&rrot, iKoXd^ero. 



326 SYNTAX : CONDITIONAL SENTENCES [§§ 515, 516 

a. In these conditions the apodosis need not always be in the In- 
dicative, but may assume any form, according to the sense : — 

si placet . . . videamus (Cat. M. 15), if you please, let us see. [Hortatory 

Subjunctive, §439.] 
si tiondum satis cernitis, recordaminl (Mil. 61), if you do not yet see clearly, 

recollect. [Imperative.] 
si quid habes certius, velim scire (Att. iv. 10), if you have any trustworthy 
information, I should like to know it. [Subjunctive of Modesty, § 447. 1.] 

Note. —Although the form of these conditions does not imply anything as to the 
truth of the supposition, the sense or the context may of course have some such impli- 
cation : — 

nolite, si in nostro omnium fletu nullam lacrimam aspexistis Milonis, hoc minus 
ei parcere (Mil. 92), do not, if amid the weeping of us all you have seen no 
tear [in the eyes] of Milo, spare him the less for that. 
petimus a vobis, iudices, si qua divina in tantis ingeniis commendatio debet 
esse, ut eum in vestram accipiatis fidem (Arch. 31), we ask you, judges, 
if there ought to be anything in such genius to recommend it to us as 
by a recommendation of the gods, that you receive him under your pro- 
tection. 
In these two passages, the protasis really expresses cause: but the cause is put by 
the speaker in the form of a non-committal condition. His hearers are to draw the 
inference for themselves. In this way the desired impression is made on their minds 
more effectively than if an outspoken causal clause had been used. 

Future Conditions 
516, Future Conditions may be more vivid or less vivid. 

1. In a more vivid future condition the protasis makes a distinct 
supposition of a future case, the apodosis expressing what will be the 
logical result. 

2. In a less vivid future condition, the supposition is less distinct, 
the apodosis expressing what ivoidd be the result in the case supposed. 

a. In the more vivid future condition the Future Indicative is used 
in both protasis and apodosis : — 

sanabimur, si volemus (Tusc. iii. 13), we shall be healed if we wish. 
quod si legere aut audire voletis, . . . reperietis (Cat, M. 20), if you will 
[shall wish to] read or hear, you will find. 

Note. — In English the protasis is usually expressed by the Present Indicative, 
rarely by the Future with shall. Often in Latin the Present Indicative is found in 
the protasis of a condition of this kind (cf. § 468) : — 

si vincimus, omnia nobis tuta erunt ; sin metu cesserimus, eadem ilia advorsa fient 
(Sail. Cat. 58), if ice conquer, all things will be safe for us; but if we yield 
through fear, those same things will become hostile. 
si pereo, hominum manibus periisse iuvabit (Aen. iii. 00*3), if I perish, it will he 
pleasant to have perished at the hands of men. 



§616] FUTURE CONDITIONS 327 

b. In the less vivid future condition the Present Subjunctive is 
used in both protasis and apodosis : — 

haec si tecum patria loquatur, nonne impetrare debeat (Cat. i. 19), if your 
country should thus speak with you, ought she not to prevail? 

quod si quis deus mihi largiatur, . . . valde recusem (Cat. M. 83), but if some 
god were to grant me this, I should stoutly refuse. 

Note. — The Present Subjunctive sometimes stands in protasis with the Future 

(or the Present) Indicative in apodosis from a change in the point of view: * 

si diligenter attendamus, intellegemus (Inv. ii. 44), if we attend (should attend) 

carefully, we shall understand. 
nisi hoc dicat, "hire feci," non habet defensionem (id. i. 18), unless he should 
say this, "I acted justifiably," he has no defence. 

c. If the conditional act is regarded as completed before that of the 
apodosis begins, the Future Perfect is substituted for the Future 
Indicative in protasis, and the Perfect Subjunctive for the Present 
Subjunctive : — 

sin cum potuero non venero, turn erit inimicus (Att. ix. 2 a. 2), but if I do n<4 

come when I can, he will be unfriendly. 
si a corona relictus sim, non queam dlcere (Brut. 192), if I should be deserted 
by the circle of listeners, I should not be able to speak. 

Note. — The Future Perfect is often used in the apodosis of a future condition: 
as, — vehementer mihi gratum feceris, si hunc adulescentem humanitate tua compre- 
henderis (Fam. xiii. 15), you will do (will have clone) me a great favor, if you receive 
this young man with your usual courtesy. 

d. Any form denoting or implying future time may stand in the 
apodosis of a future condition. So the Imperative, the participles in 
-dus and -rus, and verbs of necessity, possibility, and the like : — 

alius finis constituendus est, si prius quid maxime reprehendere Scipio" solitus 
sit dlxero (Lael. 59), another limit must be set, if I first state what Scipio 
was wont most to find fault with. 

si me praeceperit fatum, vos mandasse memento (Q. C. ix. 6. 26), if fate cuts 
me off too soon, do you remember that I ordered this. 

nisi oculis videritis insidias Miloni a Clodio factas, nee deprecaturi sumus nee 
postulaturi (Mil. 6), unless you see with your own eyes the plots laid against 
Milo by Clodius, I shall neither beg nor demand, etc. 

n5n possum istum accusare, s! cupiam (Verr. iv. 87), I cannot accuse him, if 
I should (so) desire. 

1 It often depends entirely upon the view of the writer at the moment, and not 
upon the nature of the condition, whether it shall be stated vividly or not ; as in the 
proverbial " If the sky falls, we shall catch larks " the impossible condition is iron- 
ically put in the vivid form, to illustrate the absurdity of some other supposed condi- 
tion stated by some one else. 



328 SYNTAX : CONDITIONAL SENTENCES [§§ 516, 517 

e. Rarely the Perfect Indicative is used in apodosis with a Pres- 
ent or even a Future (or Future Perfect) in protasis, to represent the 
conclusion rhetorically as already accomplished : — 

si hoc bene fixum in animo est, vicistis (Liv. xxi. 44), if this is well fixed in 
your minds, you have conquered. [For you will have conquered.] 

si eundeni [animum] habueritis, vicimus (id. xxi. 43), if you shall have kept 
the same spirit, we have conquered. 

f. A future condition is frequently thrown back into past time, 
without implying that it is contrary to fact (§ 517). In such cases 
the Imperfect or Pluperfect Subjunctive may be used : — 

n5n poterat, nisi decertare vellet (B. C. iii. 44), he was not able, unless he 
wished to fight. 

tumulus apparuit, ... si luce palam iretur hostis praeventurus erat (Liv. 
xxii. 24), a hill appeared . . . if they should go openly by daylight, the 
enemy would prevent. [The first two appear like Indirect Discourse, 
but are not. An observer describing the situation in the first example 
as present would say non potest nisi velit (see d), and no indirect dis- 
course would be thought of.] 

Caesar si peteret, . . . non quicquam proficeret (Hor. S. i. 3. 4), if even Caesar 
were to ask, he would gain nothing. [Here the construction is not con- 
trary to fact, but is simply si petat, ndn proficiat, thrown into past time.] 

Conditions Contrary to Fact 

517. In the statement of a supposition impliedly false, the Im- 
perfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive are used in both protasis and 
apodosis. 1 The Imperfect refers to present time, the Pluperfect 
to past: — 

si viveret, verba §ius audiretis (Rose. Com. 42), if he were living, you would 

hear his words. [Present.] 
nisi tu amisisses, numquam recepissem (Cat. M. 11), unless you had lost it, I 

should not have recovered it. [Past.] 
si meum consilium valuisset, tu hodie egeres, res piiblica non tot duces ami- 

sisset (Phil. ii. 37), if my judgment had prevailed [as it did not], you 

would this day be a beggar, and the republic would not have lost so many 

leaders. [Mixed Present and Past.] 

1 The implication of falsity, in this construction, is not inherent in the subjunc- 
tive ; but comes from the transfer of a future condition to past time. Thus the time 
for the happening of the condition has, at the moment of writing, already passed ; so 
that, if the condition remains a condition, it must be contrary to fact. So past forms 
of the indicative implying a future frequently take the place of the subjunctive in 
apodosis in this construction (see c, d, below, and § 511). 



1*17] COSDITIONg CONTRARY TO FACT 329 

a. In conditions contrary to fact the Imperfect often refers to past 
time, both in protasis and apodosis, especially when a repeated or con- 
tinued action is denoted, or when the condition if true would still exist : 

si nihil litterls adiuvarentur, numquam se ad earum studium contulissent 
(Arch. 16), if they had not been helped at all by literature, they never 
would have given their attention to the study of it. [Without the condi- 
tion, adiuvabantur. ] 

hie si mentis esset suae, ausus esset educere exercitum (Pison. 50), if he were 
of sane mind, would he have dared to lead out the army f [Here esset 
denotes a continued state, past as well as present.] 

non concidissent, nisi illud receptaculum classibus nostrls pateret (Verr. ii. 
3), [the power of Carthage] would not have fallen, unless that station had 
been [constantly] open to our fleets. [Without the condition, patebat.] 

b. In the apodosis of a condition contrary to fact the past tenses 
of the Indicative may be used to express what was intended, or likely, 
or already begun. In this use, the Imperfect Indicative corresponds 
in time to the Imperfect Subjunctive, and the Perfect or Pluperfect 
Indicative to the Pluperfect Subjunctive : — 

si licitum esset, matres veniebant (Verr. v. 129), the mothers were coming if 

it had been allowed. 
in amplexus filiae ruebat, nisi lictores obstitissent (Tac. Ann. xvi. 32), he was 

about rushing into his daughter'' s arms, unless the Victors had opposed. 
iam tuta tenebam, ni gens crudelis ferro invasisset (Aen. vi. 358), I was just 
reaching a place of safety, had not the fierce people attacked me. 
Note 1. — Here the apodosis may be regarded as elliptical. Thus, — matres venie- 
bant (et venissent) , the matrons vjere coming (and would have kept on) if, etc. 

Note 2. — With paene (and sometimes prope) , almost, the Perfect Indicative is used 
in the apodosis of a past condition contrary to fact : as, — pons iter paene hostibus 
dedit, ni unus vir fuisset (Liv. ii. 10), the bridge had almost given a passage to the 
foe, if it had not been for one hero. 

c. Verbs and other expressions denoting necessity, propriety, possi- 
bility, duty, when used in the apodosis of a condition contrary to 
fact, may be put in the Imperfect or Perfect Indicative. 

Such are oportet, decet, debeo, possum, necesse est, opus est, and the Sec- 
ond Periphrastic Conjugation : — l 

non potuit fieri sapiens, nisi natus esset (Fin. ii. 103), he could not have become 

a sage, if he had not been born. 
si privatus esset hoc tempore, tamen is erat deligendus (Manil. 50), if he were 
at this time a private citizen, yet he ought to be appointed. 

1 Observe that all these expressions contain the idea of futurity (cf . p. 328, footnote) . 
Thus, decet me [he-die] ire eras, means it is proper for me [to-day] to go to-morrow ; 
and, decebat me [heri] ire hodie, it was proper for me [yesterday] to go to-day, usually 
with the implication that / have not gone as I was bound to do. 



330 SYNTAX: CONDITIONAL SENTENCES [§617 

quod esse caput debebat, si probarl posset (Fin. iv. 23), what ought to be the 

main point, if it could be 'proved. 
si ita putasset, certe optabilius MilonI fuit (Mil. 31), if he had thought so, surely 

it would have been preferable for Milo. 

Note 1. —In Present conditions the Imperfect Subjunctive (oporteret, possem, etc.) 
is the rule, the Indicative being rare ; in Past conditions both the Subjunctive (usually 
Pluperfect) and the Indicative (usually Perfect) are common. 

For par erat, melius fuit, and the like, followed by the infinitive, see § 521. n. 

Note 2. — The indicative construction is carried still further in poetry: as, — si 
n6n alium iactaret odorem, laurus erat (Georg. ii. 133), it were a laurel, but for giving 
out a different odor. 

d. The participle in -urus with eram or ful may take the place of 
an Imperfect or Pluperfect Subjunctive in the apodosis of a condi- 
tion contrary to fact : — 

quid enim futurum fuit [= fuisset], si . . . (Li v. ii. 1), what would have hap- 
pened if, etc. 

relicturi agros erant, nisi ad eos Metellus litteras mlsisset (Verr. iii. 121), they 
would have abandoned their fields, if Metellus had not sent them a letter. 

neque ambigitur qmn ... id facturus fuerit, si . . . (Li v. ii. 1), nor is there 
any question that he vjould have done it, if, etc. [Direct : fecisset.] 

ade5 parata seditio fuit ut Othonem rapturi fuerint, ni incerta noctis timuis- 
sent (Tac. H. i. 26), so far advanced was the conspiracy that they would 
have seized upon Otho, had they not feared the hazards of the night. [In 
a main clause: rapuissent, ni timuissent.] 

e. The Present Subjunctive is sometimes used in poetry in the 
protasis and apodosis of conditions contrary to fact : — 

ni comes admoneat, inruat (Aen. vi. 293), had not his companion warned him, 
he would have rushed on. [Cf. tu si hie sis, aliter sentias (Ter. And. 310), 
if you were in my place, you would think differently.'} 

Note 1. — This is probably a remnant of an old construction (see next note). 

Note 2. — In old Latin the Present Subjunctive (as well as the Imperfect) is used 
in present conditions contrary to fact and the Imperfect (more rarely the Pluperfect) 
in past conditions of the same kind. Thus it appears thpt the Imperfect Subjunctive, 
like the Imperfect Indicative, once denoted past time, even in conditional sentences. 
Gradually, however, in conditional sentences, the Present Subjunctive was restricted 
to the less vivid future and the Imperfect (in the nvMn) to the present contrary to fact, 
while the Pluperfect was used in past conditions of this nature. The old construction, 
however, seems to have been retained as an archaism in poetry. 

/. In Plautus and Terence absque me (te, etc.) is sometimes used to 
introduce conditions contrary to fact : — 

absque te esset, hodie nusquam viverem (PI. Men. 1022), if it were not for 

you, I should not be alive to-day. 
absque eo esset, recte ego mihi vidissem (Ter. Ph. 188), if it had not been for 

him, I should have looked out for myself. 



§518] GENERAL CONDITIONS 331 

GENERAL CONDITIONS 

518. General Conditions (§ 513. 2) have usually the same forms 
as Particular Conditions. But they are sometimes distinguished 
in the following cases : — 

a. The Subjunctive is often used in the second person singular, to 
denote the act of an indefinite subject {you = any one). Here the 
Present Indicative of a general truth may stand in the apodosis : — 

vita humana prope utl ferruui est : si exerceas, conteritur ; si non exerceas, 
tamen roblgo interficit (Cato de M.), human life is very like iron: if 
you use it, it wears away ; if you don't use it, rust still destroys it. 

virtutem necessario gloria, etiamsl tu id non agas, consequitur (Tusc. i. 91), 
glory necessarily follows virtue, even if that is not one's aim. 

si prohibita imptine transcenderis, neque metus ultra neque pudor est (Tac. 
Ann. iii. 54), if you once overstep the bounds with impunity, there is no 
fear or shame any more. 

b. In a general condition in present time, the protasis often takes 
the Perfect Indicative, and the apodosis the Present Indicative. For 
past time, the Pluperfect is used in the protasis, and the Imperfect in 
the apodosis : — ■ 

si quos aliqua parte meinbrorum inutills notaverunt, necari iubent (Q. C. ix. 

1. 25), if they [ever] mark any infirm in any part of their limbs, they 

[always] order them to be put to death. [Present. ] 
si a persequendo hostls deterrere nequiverant, ab tergo circumveniebant (lug. 

50), if [ever] they were unable to prevent the enemy from pursuing, they 

[always] surrounded them in the rear. [Past.] 

c. In later writers (rarely in Cicero and Caesar), the Imperfect and 
Pluperfect Subjunctive are used in protasis, with the Imperfect In- 
dicative in apodosis, to state a repeated or customary action in past 
time (Iterative Subjunctive): — 

si quis a domino prehenderetur, concursu militum eripiebatur (B. C. iii. 110), 
if any (runaway) was arrested by his master, he was (always) rescued by 
a mob of soldiers. 

acciisatores, si facultas incideret, poenls adficiebantur (Tac. Ann. vi. 30), the 
accusers, whenever opportunity offered, were visited with punishment. 

si quis collegam appellasset, ab eo ita discedebat ut paeniteret non prions 
decreto stetisse (Liv. iii. 36. 8), if any one appealed to a colleague, he 
[always] came off in such case that he repented not having submitted to 
the decree of the former decemvir. [Cf. Socrates, quam se cumque in 
partem dedisset, omnium fuit facile princeps (De Or. iii. 60), in whatever 
direction Socrates turned himself, he was (always) easily the foremost (if 
in any, etc.).] 



832 SYNTAX : CONDITIONAL SENTENCES [§§ 619, 620 

Conditional Relative Clauses 

519. A clause introduced by a Relative Pronoun or Relative 
Adverb may express a condition and take any of the construc- 
tions of Protasis 1 (§ 514): — 

qui enim vitiis modum adponit, is partem suscipit viti5rum (Tusc. iv. 42), he 

who [only] sets a limit to faults, takes up the side of the faults. [= si 

quis adponit. Present, nothing implied.] 
qui mentiri solet, peierare consuevit (Rose. Com. 46), whoever is in the habit of 

lying, is accustomed to swear falsely. [= si quis solet. Present, nothing 

implied.] 
quicquid potuit, potuit ipsa per se (Leg. Agr. i. 20), whatever power she had, 

she had by herself. [= si quid potuit. Past, nothing implied.] 
quod qui faciet, non aegritudine solum vacabit, sed, etc. (Tusc. iv. 38), and 

he who does (shall do) this, will be free not only, etc. [= si quis faciet. 

Future, more vivid.] 
quisquis hue venerit, vapulabit (PL Am. 309), whoever comes here shall get a 

thrashing. [= si quis venerit. Future, more vivid.] 
quo voles, sequar (Clu. 71), whithersoever you wish (shall wish), I will follow. 

[= si quo voles. Future, more vivid.] 
philosophia, cui qui pareat, omne tempus aetatis sine m olestia possit degere (Cat. 

M. 2), philosophy, which if any one should obey, he would be able to spend 

his whole life without vexation. [= si quis pareat. Future, less vivid.] 
quaecumque vos causa hue attulisset, laetarer (De Or. ii. 15), I should be glad, 

whatever cause had brought you here (i.e. if any other, as well as the one 

which did). [==. si . . . attulisset. Contrary to fact.] 

The relative in this construction is always indefinite in meaning, 
and very often inform. 

520. The special constructions of General Conditions are some- 
times found in Conditional Relative Clauses : — 

1. The Second Person Singular of the Subjunctive in the protasis 
with the Indicative of a general truth in the apodosis (§ 518. a) : — 

bonus tantum modo segnior fit ubi neglegas, at malus improbior (lug. 31. 28), 
a good man merely becomes less diligent when you don't watch him, but a 
bad man becomes more shameless. [Present General Condition.] 

2. The Perfect or Pluperfect Indicative in the protasis and the 
Present or Imperfect Indicative in the apodosis (§ 518. b) : — 

cum hue veni, hoc ipsum nihil agere me delectat (De Or. ii. 24), whenever I 
come here, this very doing nothing delights me (whenever I have come, 
etc.). [Present General Condition.] 

1 As in the Greek os Slv, 8rav, etc. ; and in statutes in English, where the phrases 
if any person shall and whoever shall are used indifferently. 



§§ 520, 621] CONDITION DISGUISED 833 

cum rosam viderat, turn incipere ver arbitrabatur (Verr. v. 27), whenever he 
saw (had seen) a rose, then he thought spring was beginning. [Past 
General Condition.] 

3. In later writers (rarely in Cicero and Caesar) the Imperfect or 
Pluperfect Subjunctive in the protasis and the Imperfect Indicative 
in the apodosis (§ 518. c) : — 

ubi irnbecillitas materiae postulate videretur, pilae interpdnuntur (B. C. ii. 
16), wherever the weakness of the timber seemed to require, piles were put 
between. [Past General Condition : interpSnuntur = interponebantur.] 

quScumque se intulisset, victoriam secum trahebat (Liv. vi. 8), wherever he 
advanced, he carried victory with him. [Past General Condition.] 



Condition Disguised 

521. In many sentences properly conditional, the Protasis is 
not expressed by a conditional clause, but is stated in some other 
form of words or implied in the nature of the thought. 

a. The condition may be implied in a Clause, or in a Participle, 
Noun, Adverb, or some other word or phrase : — 

facile me paterer — illo ipso hidice quaerente — pro Sex. Roscio dicere (Rose. 

Am. 85), I should readily allow myself to speak for Roscius if that very 

judge were conducting the trial. [Present contrary to fact : si quaereret, 

paterer.] 
non mihi, nisi admonito, venisset in mentem (De Or. ii. 180), it would not have 

come into my mind unless [I had been] reminded. [Past contrary to 

fact: nisi admonitus essera.] 
nulla alia gens tanta mole cladis non obruta esset (Liv. xxii. 54), there is no 

other people that would not have been crushed by such a weight of disaster. 

[Past contrary to fact : si alia fuisset.] 
n§mo umquam sine magna spe immortalitatis se pro patria offerret ad mortem 

(Tusc. i. 32), no one, without great hope of immortality, would ever expose 

himself to death for his country. [Present contrary to fact : nisi magnam 

spem haberet.] 
quid hunc paucorum annorum accessiS iuvare potuisset (Lael. 11), what good 

could the addition of a few years have done him (if they had been added) ? 

[Past contrary to fact : si accessissent.] 
quid igitur mihi ferarum laniatus oberit nihil sentient! (Tusc. i. 104), what 

harm will the mangling by wild beasts do me if I don't feel anything 

(feeling nothing) ? [Future more vivid : si nihil sentiam. ] 
incitata semel prochvl labuntur sustinerlque nullo modo possunt (id. iv. 42), 

if once given a push, they slide down rapidly and can in no way be 

checked. [Present General: $1 incitata sunt.] 



334 SYNTAX: CONDITIONAL SENTENCES [§§521,522 

Note. — In several phrases denoting necessity, propriety, or the like, the Imper 
feet, Perfect, or Pluperfect Indicative of esse is used in the apodosis of a condition 
contrary to fact, the protasis being implied in a subject infinitive (cf. 517. c) : — 

quanto melius fuerat promissum non esse servatum (Off. iii. 94), how much better 
would it have been if the promise had not been kept! [promissum . . . 
servatum — si promissum non esset servatum.] 
mori praeclarum fuit (Att. viii. 2. 2), it would have been honorable to die. 
sed erat aequius Triarium aliquid de dissensione nostra iudicare (Fin. ii. 119), but it 
tvould be more equitable if Triarius passed judgment on our dispute. [Tri- 
arium iudicare = si Triarius iudicaret.] 
satius fuit amittere milites (Inv. ii. 73), it would have been better to lose the soldiers. 
[amittere = si amisisset.] 

h. The condition may be contained in a wish ( Optative Subjunctive), 
or expressed as an exhortation or command (Hortatory Subjunctive 
or Imperative) : — 

utinam quidem fuissem ! molestus nobis non esset (Fam. xii. 3), I wish I 
had been [chief]: he would not now be troubling us (i.e. if I had beer). 
[Optative Subjunctive.] 
nattiram expellas furca, tamen usque recurret (Hor. Ep. i. 10. 24), drive out 

nature with a pitchfork, still she will ever return. [Hortatory.] 
roges enim Aristonem, neget (Fin. iv. 69), for ask Aristo, he would deny. 
manent ingenia senibus, modo permaneat studiuni et industria (Cat. M. 22), 
old men keep their mental powers, only let them keep their zeal and dili- 
gence (§ 528. n.). [Hortatory.] 
tolle hanc opmionem, luctum sustuleris (Tusc. i. 30), remove this notion, and 
you ivill have done away with grief [Imperative.] 

Note. — The so-called Concessive Subjunctive with ut and ne often has the force 
of protasis (§ 527. a. n.) : as, — ut enim rationem Plato nullam adferret, ipsa auctoritate 
me frangeret (Tusc. i. 49), even if Plato gave no reasons, [still] he would overpower . 
me by his mere authority. 

c. Rarely the condition takes the form of an independent clause: 

rides : maiore eachinno concutitur (Iuv. iii. 100), you laugh; he shakes with 

louder laughter (= if you laugh, he shakes). 
commove: senties (Tusc. iv. 54), stir him up, [and] youHlfind, etc. 
de paupertate agitur : multi patientes pauperes commemorantur (id. iii. 57), 

we speak of poverty; many patient poor are mentioned. 

For Conditional Relative Clauses, see §§ 519, 520. 

Condition Omitted 

522. The Protasis is often wholly omitted, but may be inferred 
from the course of the argument : — 

poterat Sextilius impune negare : quis enim redargueret (Fin. ii. 55), Sextilius 
might have denied with impunity; for who would prove Mm wrong (if he 
had denied)? 



§§ 522, 523] COMPLEX CONDITIONS 335 

a. In expressions signifying necessity, propriety, and the like, the 
Indicative may be used in the apodosis of implied conditions, either 
future or contrary to fact : — 

quod contra decuit ab illo nieum [corpus cremari] (Cat. M. 84), whereas on 
the other hand mine ought to have been burnt by him. 

nam nos decebat domum lugere ubi esset aliquis in luceni editus (Tusc, i. 
115), for it were fitting for us to mourn the house where a man has been 
born (but we do not). 

quanto melius fuerat (Off. iii. 94), how much better it would have been. 

illud erat aptius, aeqitum cuique concedere (Fin. iv. 2), it would be more fit- 
ting to yield each one his rights. 

ipsum enim exspectare magnuin fuit (Phil. ii. 103), ivould it have been a great 
matter to wait for the man himself? 

longum est ea dlcere, sed . . . (Sest. 12), it would be tedious to tell, etc. 
[Future. ] 

Note 1. — In this construction, the Imperfect Indicative refers to present time; 
the Pluperfect to simple past time, like the Perfect. Thus oportebat means it ought 
to be [now], but is not; oportuerat means it ought to have bee?i, but was not. 

Note 2. — In many cases it is impossible to say whether a protasis was present 
to the mind of the speaker or not (see third example above). 

Complex Conditions 

523. Either the Protasis or the Apodosis may be a complex idea 
in which the main statement is made with expressed or implied 
qualifications. In such cases the true logical relation of the 
parts is sometimes disguised : — 

si quis horum dixisset ... si verbum de re publica fecisset . . . multa plura 
dixisse quam dixisset putaretur (Rose. Am. 2), if any of these had spoken, 
in case he had said a word about politics he ivould be thought to have said 
much more than he did say. [Here the apodosis of dixisset is the whole 
of the following statement (si . . . putaretur), which is itself conditioned 
by a protasis of its own : si verbum, etc.]. 

quod si in hoc mundo fieri sine deo non potest, ne in sphaera quidem eosdeni 
motus sine divino ingenio potuisset imitari (Tusc. i. 63), now if thai can- 
not be done in this universe without divine agency, no more could [Archi- 
medes] in his orrery have imitated the same revolutions without divine 
genius. [Here si potest (a protasis with nothing implied) has for its 
apodosis the whole clause which follows, but potuisset has a contrary- 
to-fact protasis of its own implied in sine . . . ingenio.] 

peream male si non optimum erat (Hor. S. ii. 1. 6), confound me (may I 
perish wretchedly) if it wouldn't be better. [Here peream is apodosis to 
the rest of the sentence, while the true protasis to optimum erat, contrary 
to fact, is omitted.] 



336 SYNTAX: CONDITIONAL SENTENCES [§ 6B4 

Clauses of Comparison (Conclusion Omitted) 

524. Conditional Clauses of Comparison take the Subjunctive, 
usually in the Present or Perfect unless the sequence of tenses 
requires the Imperfect or Pluperfect. 

Such clauses are introduced by the comparative particles tamquam, 
tamquam si, quasi, ac si, ut si, velut si (later velut), poetic ceu (all mean- 
ing as if), and by quam si (than if) : — - 

tamquam clausa sit Asia (Fam. xii. 9), as if Asia were closed. 
tamquam si claudus sim (PL Asin. 427), just as if I were lame. 
ita hos [honores] petunt, quasi honeste vixerint (lug. 85), they seek them 

(offices) just as if they had lived honorably. 
k quasi vero non specie visa iudicentur (Acad. ii. 58), as if forsooth visible things 

were not judged by their appearance. 
similiter facis ac si me roges (N. D. iii. 8), you do exactly as if you asked me. 
crudelitatem horrerent velut si coram adesset (B. G. i. 32), they dreaded his 

cruelty (they said), as if he were present in person. 
hie ingentem pugnam cernimus ceu cetera irusquam bellaforent (Aen. ii. 438), 

here we saw a great battle, as if there were no fighting elsewhere. [But 

sometimes with the indicative in poetry, as id. v. 88.] 
magis a me" abesse videbare quam si doml esses (Att. vi. 5), you seemed to 

be absent from me more than if you were at home. 

Note 1. — These subjunctive clauses are really future conditions with apodosis 
implied in the particle itself. Thus in tamquam si claudus sim the protasis is introduced 
by si, and the apodosis implied in tamquam. 

Note 2. — The English idiom would lead us to expect the Imperfect and Pluperfect 
Subjunctive (contrary to fact) with these particles ; but the point of view is different 
in the two languages. Thus the second example above is translated just as if I were 
lame, — as if it were a present condition contrary to fact; but it really means just as 
[it would be] if I should [at some future time] be lame, and so is a less vivid future 
condition requiring the Present Subjunctive. Similarly quasi honeste vixerint, as if 
they had lived honorably, is really as [they would do in the future] if they should have 
lived honorably and so requires the Perfect Subjunctive (§516. c). 

a. Even after a primary tense, the Imperfect or Pluperfect Sub- 
junctive (contrary to fact) is often used in conditional clauses of 
comparison : — 

aeque a te peto ac si mea negotia essent (Fam. xiii. 43), I entreat you as much 

as if it were my oivn business. 
§ius negotium sic velim suscipias ut si esset res mea (id. vii. 20. 1), I would 

have you undertake his business as though it were my affair. 

Note. — The practice differs with the different particles. Thus in Cicero a clause 
with tamquam or quasi almost always observes the sequence of tenses, but with quam sfi 
the Imperfect or Pluperfect is the rule. 



§ 525] USE OF SI AND ITS COMPOUNDS 837 

Use of si and its Compounds 

525. The uses of some of the more common Conditional Parti- 
cles may be stated as follows : — 

a. SI is used for affirmative, nisi (ni) and si non for negative con- 
ditions. 

1. With nisi (generally unless) the apodosis is stated as universally true 
except in the single case supposed, in which case it is (impliedly) not true : — 

nisi Conon adest, niaere<5, unless Conon is here, I mourn (i.e. I am always in 
a state of grief except in the single case of Conon's presence, in which 
case I am not). 

2. With si non (if not) the apodosis is only stated as true in the (negative) 
case supposed, hut as to other cases no statement is made : — 

si ConOn non adest, maereo, if Conon is not here, I mourn (i.e. I mourn in 
the single case of Conon's absence, nothing being said as to other cases 
in which I may or may not mourn). 

Note. — It often makes no difference in which of these forms the condition is 
stated. 

3. Sometimes nisi si, except if, unless, occurs : — 

noli putare me ad quemquam longi5res epistulas scribere, nisi si quis ad me" 
plura sciipsit (Fam. xiv. 2), . . . except in case one writes more to me. 

Note. — NI is an old form surviving in a few conventional phrases and reappear- 
ing in poets and later writers. 

b* Nisi vero and nisi forte regularly introduce an objection or excep- 
tion ironically, and take the Indicative : — 

nisi vero L. Caesar crudelior visas est (Cat. iv. 13), unless indeed Lucius 

Ccesar seemed too cruel. 
nisi forte volumus Epicureorum opmionem sequi (Fat. 37), unless, to be sure, 
we choose t) follow the notion of the Epicureans. 

Note. — This is the regular way of introducing a reductio ad absurdum in Latin. 
Nisi alone is sometimes used in this sense: as, — nisi iinum hoc faciam ut in puteo 
cenam coquant (PI. Aul. 365), unless I do this one thing, [make them] cook dinner 
in the well. 

c. Sive (sen) . . . sive (seu), whether . . . or, introduce a condition 
in the form of an alternative. They may be used with any form of 
condition, or with different forms in the two members. Often also 
they are used without a verb : — 

nam illo loco libentissime soleo utl, sive quid mecum ipse cogitO, sive quid 
scribo aut lego (Legg. ii. 1), for I enjoy myself most in that place, whethe" 
I am thinking by myself, or am either writing or reading. 
Note. — Sive . . . seu and seu . . . sive are late or poetic . 



338 SYNTAX : CONCESSIVE CLAUSES [§§ 625-627 

d. Sin, but if, often introduces a supposition contrary to one that 
precedes : — 

accusator ilium defendet si poterit; sin minus poterit, negabit (Inv. ii. 88), 
the accuser will defend him if he can ; but if he cannot, he will deny. 

e. Nisi is often used loosely by the comic poets in the sense of only 
when a negative (usually nescio) is expressed, or easily understood, in 
the main clause : — 

nescio : nisi me dixisse nemini certo scio (Ter. Ph. 952), / donH know : only 
I am sure that I haven't told anybody. 

CONCESSIVE CLAUSES 

526 . The concessive idea is rather vague and general, and takes a variety of forms, 
each of which has its distinct history. Sometimes concession is expressed by the Hor- 
tatory Subjunctive in a sentence grammatically independent (§440), but it is more 
frequently and more precisely expressed by a dependent clause introduced by a con- 
cessive particle. The concessive force lies chiefly in the Conjunctions (which are 
indefinite or conditional in origin), and is often made clearer by an adversative par- 
ticle (tamen, certe) in the main clause. As the. Subjunctive may be used in independ- 
ent clauses to express a concession, it is also employed in concessive clauses, and 
somewhat more frequently than the indicative. 

527. The Particles of Concession (meaning although, granting 
that) are quamvis, ut, licet, etsi, tametsi, etiam si, quamquam, and cum. 

Some of these take the Subjunctive, others the Indicative, ac- 
cording to the nature of the clause which each introduces. 

a. Quamvis and ut take the Subjunctive : — 

quamvis ipsi infantes sint, tamen . . . (Or. 76), however incapable of speaking 

they themselves may be, yet, etc. 
quamvis sceleratl ill! fuissent (De Or. i. 2.30), however guilty they might have 

been. 
quamvis comis in aniicls tuendis fuerit (Fin. ii. 80), amiable as he may have 

been in keeping his friends. 
ut neminem alium rogasset (Mil. 46), even if he had asked no other. 
ut enim non emcias quod vis, tamen mors ut malum non sit efficies (Tusc. i. 

16), for even if you do not accomplish what you wish, still you will prove 

that death is not an evil. 
ut rationem Plato niillam adferret (id. i. 49), though Plato adduced no reasons. 

Note. — Quamvis means literally as much as you will. Thus in the first example 
above, let them be as incapable as you will, still, etc. The subjunctive with quamvis 
is hortatory, like that with ne (§ 440) ; that with ut (ut non) is of uncertain origin. 

b. Licet, although, takes the Present or Perfect Subjunctive : — 
licet omnes mihi terrorgs periculaque impendeant (Rose. Am. 31), though att 

terrors and perils should menace me. 



§ 527] CONCESSIVE CLAUSES 339 

Note. — Licet is properly a verb in the present tense, meaning it is granted. Hence 
the subjunctive is by the sequence of tenses limited to the Present and Perfect. The 
con3essive clause with licet is hortatory in origin, but may be regarded as a substan- 
tive clause serving as the subject of the impersonal verb (§ 565. n. 1 ). 

c. Etsi, etiam si, tametsi, even if, take the same constructions as si 
(see § 514) : — 

etsi abest maturitas, tamen non est inutile (Fam. vi. 18. 4), though ripeness 

of age is wanting, yet it is not useless, etc. 
etsi numquam dubium fuit, tamen perspicio (id. v. 19), although it has never 

been doubtful, yet I perceive, etc. 
etsi statueram (id. v. 5), though I had determined. 
etsi nihil aliud abstulissetis, tamen contentos vos esse oportebat (Sull. 90), 

even if you had taken away nothing else, you ought to have been satisfied. 
etiam si quod scrlbas non habebis, scribito tamen (Fam. xvi. 26), even if you 

[shall] have nothing to write, still write. 
sed ea tametsi vos parvl pendebatis (Sail. Cat. 52. 9), but although you regarded 

those things as of small account. 

Note 1. — Tametsi with the subjunctive is very rare. 

Note 2. — A protasis with si often has a concessive force: as, — ego, si essent ini- 
mi^itiae mihi cum C. Caesare, tamen hoc tempore rei publicae consulere . . . deberem 
(Prov. Cons. 47), as for me, even if I had private quarrels with Csesar, it would still 
be my duty to serve the best interests of the state at this crisis. 

d. Quamquam, although, introduces an admitted fact and takes the 
Indicative : — 

omnibus — quamquam ruit ipse suls cladibus — pest em denuntiat (Phil. xiv. 
8), though he is breaking down under his disasters, still he threatens all 
with destruction. 

Note. — Quamquam more commonly means and yet, introducing a new proposition 
in the indicative : as, — quamquam haec quidem iam tolerabilia videbantur, etsi, etc. 
(Mil. 76), and yet these, in truths seemed now bearable, though, etc. 

e. The poets and later writers frequently use quamvis and quam- 
quam like etsi, connecting them with the Indicative or the Subjunc- 
tive, according to the nature of the condition : — 

quamquam moveretur (Liv. xxxvi. 34), although he was moved. 

Pollio amat nostram, quamvis est riistica, musam (Eel. iii. 84), Polllo loves 

my muse, though she is rustic. 
quamvis perveneras (Liv. ii. 40), though you had come. 

f. Ut, as, with the Indicative, may be equivalent to a concession : 
verum ut errare potuisti, sic decipi te n5n potuisse quis non videt (Fam. x. 

20. 2), suppose you could have been mistaken, who does not see that you 
cannot have been deceived in this way f 

For cum concessive, see § 549 ; for qui concessive, see § 535. e. For concession ex- 
pressed by the Hortatory Subjunctive (negative ne), see § 440. 



340 SYNTAX: CLAUSES OF PROVISO [§§528-531 



CLAUSES OF PROVISO 

528. Dum, modo, dummodor, and tantum ut, introducing a Proviso, 

take the Subjunctive. The negative with these particles is ne: 

Oderint dum metuant (Off. i. 97), let them hate, if only they fear. 

valettido modo bona sit (Brut. 64), provided the health be good. 

dummodo inter me atque te murus intersit (Cat. i. 10), provided only the wall 

(of the city) is between us. 
tantum ut sciant (Att. xvi. 11. 1), provided only they know. 
modo ne sit ex pecudum genere (Off. i. 105), provided [in pleasure] he be 

not of the herd of cattle. 
id faciat saepe, dum ne lassus fiat (Cato R. R. v. 4), let him do this often, 

provided, he does not get tired. 
dummodo ea (severitas) ne varietur (Q. Fr. i. 1. 20), provided only it (strictness) 

be not allowed to swerve. 
tantum ne noceat (Ov. M. ix. 21), only let it do no harm. 

Note. — The Subjunctive with modo is hortatory or optative; that with dum and 
dummodo, a development from the use of the Subjunctive with dum in temporal clauses, 
§ 553 (compare the colloquial so long as my health is good, I don't care). 

a* The Hortatory Subjunctive without a particle sometimes ex- 
presses a proviso : — 

sint Maecenases, non deerunt Marones (Mart. viii. 56. 5), so there be Maece- 
nases, Virgils will not be lacking. 

b. The Subjunctive with ut (negative ne) is sometimes used to de- 
note a proviso, usually with ita in the main clause : — 

probata condicio est, sed ita ut ille praesidia deduceret (Att. vii. 14. 1), the 
terms were approved, but only on condition that he should withdraw the 
garrisons. 

Note. ■— This is a development of the construction of Characteristic or Result. 
For a clause of Characteristic expressing Proviso, see § 535. d. 

CLAUSES OF PURPOSE (FINAL CLAUSES) 

529. The Subjunctive in the clause of Purpose is hortatory in origin, coming 
through a kind of indirect discourse construction (for which see §592). Thus, misit 
legatos qui dicerent means he sent ambassadors who should say, i.e. loho were directed 
to say ; in the direct orders the verb would be dicite, which would become dicant in the 
Indirect Discourse of narrative (§ 588) or dicerent in the past (cf . hortatory subjunctive 
in past tenses, § 439. b). The Subjunctive with ut and ne is, in general, similar in 
origin. 

530. A clause expressing purpose is called a Final Clause. 

531. Final Clauses take the Subjunctive introduced by ut (uti), 
negative ne (ut ne), or by a Relative Pronoun or Adverb: — 



§531] CLAUSES OF PURPOSE 341 

1. Pure Clauses of Purpose, with ut (uti) or ne (ut ne), express the 
purpose of the main verb in the form of a modifying clause: — 

ab aratro abduxerunt Cincinnatuni, ut dictator esset (Fin. ii. 12), they brought 
Cincinnatus from the plough that he might be dictator. 

ut sint auxilio suis, subsistunt (B. C. i. 80), they halt in order to support (be 
an aid to) their own men, 

ne milites oppidum inrumperent, portas obstruit (id. i. 27), he barricaded the 
gates, in order that the soldiers might not break into the town. 

scalas pararl iubet, ne quam facultatem dimittat (id. i. 28), he orders scaling- 
ladders to be got ready, in order not to let slip any opportunity. 

ut ne sit impune (Mil. 31), that it be not vnth impunity. 

Note 1. — Sometimes the conjunction has a correlative (ideo, idcirco, eo consilio, etc) 
in the main clause (cf . § 561. a) : — 

legum idcirco servi sumus, ut liber* simus (Clu. 146), for this reason we are subject 

to the laws, that we may be free. 
copias transduxit eo cdnsilio, ut castellum expugnaret (cf. B. G. ii. 9), he led the 
troops across with this design — to storm the fort. 
Note 2. — Ut n5n sometimes occurs in clauses of purpose when non belongs to some 
particular word : as, — ut plura non dicam (Manil. 44), to avoid unnecessary talk. 

2. Kelative Clauses of Purpose are introduced by the relative pro- 
noun qui or a relative adverb (ubi, unde, quo, etc.). The antecedent 
is expressed or implied in the main clause: — 

mittitur L. Decidius Saxa qui loci naturam perspiciat (B. C. i. 66), Lucius 

Decidius Saxa is sent to examine the ground (who should examine, etc.). 
scribebat orationes quas alii dicerent (Brut. 206), he wrote speeches for other 

men to deliver. 
eo exstlncto fore unde discerem neminem (Cat. M. 12), that when he was dead 

there would be nobody from whom (whence) I could learn. 
huic ne ubi consisteret quidem contra te locum rellquistl (Quinct. 73), you 

have left him no ground even to make a stand against you. 
habebam qud confugerem (Fam. iv. 6. 2), I had [a retreat] whither I might flee. 

Note. — In this construction qui = ut is (etc.), ubi = ut ibi, and so on (§ 537. 2). 

a. The ablative quo (= ut eo) is used as a conjunction in final 
clauses which contain a comparative : — 

comprimere eorum audaciam, quo facilius ceterorum animi frangerentur 
(Fam. xv. 4. 10), to repress their audacity, that the spirit of the others 
might be broken more easily (by which the more easily), 
libertate usus est, quo impunius dicax esset (Quinct. 11), he took advantage 
of liberty, that he might bluster with more impunity. 

Note. — Occasionally quo introduces a final clause that does not contain a compara- 
tive : as, — L. Sulla exercitum, qu5 sibi fidum faceret, luxuriose habuerat (Sail. Cat. 11), 
Lucius Sulla had treated the army luxuriously, in order to make it devoted to him. 

^or quominus (=ut eo minus) after verbs of hindering, see § 558. b. 



342 SYNTAX: CLAUSES OF PURPOSE [§§532,533 

532. The principal clause, on which a final clause depends, is 
often to be supplied from the context : — 

ac ne longum sit . . . iussimus (Cat. iii. 10), and, not to be tedious, toe ordered, 
etc. [Strictly, in order not to be tedious, I say we ordered.] 

sed ut ad Dionysium redeamus (Tusc. v. 63), but to return to Dionysius. 

sed ut eodem revertar, causa haec fuit timoris (Fam. vi. 7. 3), but, to return 
to the same point, this was the cause of fear. 

satis inconsiderati fuit, ne dlcam audacis (Phil. xiii. 12), it was the act of one 
rash enough, not to say daring. 

Note 1. — By a similar ellipsis the Subjunctive is used with nedum (sometimes ne), 
still less, not to mention that : — 

nedum salvi esse possimus (Clu. 95), much less could we be safe. 

nedum isti non statim conquisitiiri sint aliquid sceleris et flagiti (Leg. Agr. ii. 97), 

far more will they hunt up at once some sort of crime and scandal. 
nedum in marl et via sit facile (Fam. xvi. 8), still less is it easy at sea and on a 

journey. 
quippe secundae res sapientium animos f atigant ; ne illi corruptis moribus vic- 
toriae temperarent (Sail. Cat. 11) , for prosperity overmasters the soul even 
of the wise; much less did they ivith their corrupt morals put any check on 
victory. 
Note 2. — With nedum the verb itself is often omitted: as, — aptius humanitati 
tuae quam tota Peloponnesus, nedum Patrae (Fam. vii. 28. 1), fitter for your refine- 
ment than all Peloponnesus, to say nothing of Patrae. 

For Substantive Clauses involving purpose, see §§ 563-566. 

533. The Purpose of an action is expressed in Latin in various 
ways ; but never (except in idiomatic expressions and rarely in 
poetry) by the simple Infinitive as in English (§ 460). 

The sentence, they came to seek peace, may be rendered — 

(1) venerunt ut pacem peterent. [Final clause with ut (§ 631. 1).] 

(2) venerunt qui pacem peterent. [Final clause with Relative (§ 531. 2).] 

(3) [venerunt ad petendum pacem.] Not found with transitive verbs (§ 506, 

n. 2 ), but cf. ad parendum senatui. [Gerund with ad (§ 506).] 

(4) venerunt ad petendam pacem. [Gerundive with ad (§ 506).] 

(5) venerunt pacem petendi causa (gratia). [Gen. of Gerund with causa 

(§504.6).] 

(6) venerunt pacis petendae causa (gratia). [Gen. of Gerundive with causa 

(§ 504. &).] 

(7) venerunt pacem petituri. [Future participle (§ 499. 2); in later writers.] 

(8) venerunt pacem petltum. [Supine in -um (§ 509).] 

These forms are not used indifferently, but — 

a. The usual way of expressing purpose is by ut (negative ne), 
unless the purpose is closely connected with some one word, in which 
case a relative is more common: — 



§§533-535] CLAUSES OF CHARACTERISTIC 343 

legatos ad Dumnorigem mittunt, ut eo deprecatore a Sequanls impetrarent 
(B. G. i. 9), they send envoys to Dumnorix, in order through his interces- 
sion to obtain (this favor) from the Sequani. 

milites misit ut eos qui fugerant persequerentur (id. v. 10), he sent the sol- 
diers to follow up those who had fled. 

Curio praemittit equites qui prlmum impetum sustineant (B. C. ii. 26), Curio 
sends forward cavalry to withstand the first attack. 

b. The Gerund and Gerundive constructions of purpose are usually 
limited to short expressions, where the literal translation, though not 
the English idiom, is nevertheless not harsh or strange. 

c. The Supine is used to express purpose only with verbs of motion, 
and in a few idiomatic expressions (§ 509). 

d. The Future Participle used to express purpose is a late con- 
struction of inferior authority (§ 499. 2). 

For the poetical Infinitive of Purpose, see § 460. c. For the Present Participle in 
a sense approaching that of purpose, see § 490. 3. 

CLAUSES OF CHARACTERISTIC 

534. The relative clause of Characteristic with the Subjunctive is a development 
peculiar to Latin. A relative clause in the Indicative merely states something as a 
fact which is true of the antecedent; a characteristic clause (in the Subjunctive) 
defines the antecedent as a person or thing of such a character that the statement 
made is true of him or it and of all others belonging to the same class. Thus, — non 
potest exercitum is continere imperator qui se ipse non continet (indicative) means simply, 
that commander who does not (as a fact) restrain himself cannot restrain his army ; 
whereas non potest exercitum is continere imperator qui se ipse non contineat (subjunctive) 
would mean, that commander who is not such a man as to restrain himself, etc., 
that is, who is not characterized by self-restraint. 

This construction has its origin in the potential use of the subjunctive (§445). 
Thus, in the example just given, qui se ipse non contineat would mean literally, who 
would not restrain himself (in any supposable case), and this potential idea passes 
over easily into that of general quality or characteristic. The characterizing force 
is most easily felt when the antecedent is indefinite or general. But this usage is 
extended in Latin to cases which differ but slightly from statements of fact, as in 
some of the examples below. 

The use of the Subjunctive to express Result comes from its use in Clauses of 
Characteristic. Thus, non sum ita hebes ut haec dicam means literally, I am not didl 
in the manner (degree) in which I should say this, hence, / am not so dull as to say 
this. Since, then, the characteristic often appears in the form of a supposed result, 
the construction readily passes over into Pure Result, with no idea of characteristic ; 
as, — tantus in curia clamor factus est ut populus concurrent (Verr. ii. 47), such an outcry 
was made in the senate-house that the people hurried together. 

535. A Relative Clause with the Subjunctive is often used to 
indicate a characteristic of the antecedent, especially where the 
antecedent is otherwise undefined : — 



844 SYNTAX: CLAUSES OF CHARACTERISTIC [§535 

neque enim tu is es qui nescias (Fam. v. 12. 6), for you are not such a one as 

not to know. [Here is is equivalent to such, and is defined only by the 

relative clause that follows.] 
multa dlcunt quae vix intellegam (Fin. iv. 2), they say many things which 

(such as) I hardly understand. 
pad quae nihil habitura sit Insidiarum semper est consulendum (Off. i. 35), 

we must always aim at a peace which shall have no plots. 

a. A Eelative Clause of Characteristic is used after general expres- 
sions of existence or non-existence, including questions which imply 
a negative. 

So especially with sunt qu% there are [some] who ; quis est qui, who 
is there who ? — 

sunt qui discessum animi a corpore putent esse mortem (Tusc. i. 18), there are 
some who think that the departure of sold from body constitutes death. 

erant qui censerent (B. C. ii. 30), there were some ivho were of the opinion, etc. 

erant qui Helvidium miserarentur (Tac. Ann. xvi. 29), there were some who 
pitied Helvidius. [Cf. est cum (n. 3 , below).] 

quis est qui id non maximis efferat laudibus (Lael. 24), who is there that does 
not extol it with the highest praise ? 

nihil video quod timeam (Fam. ix. 16. 3), I see nothing to fear. 

nihil est quod adventum nostrum extimescas (Fam. ix. 26. 4), there is no rea- 
son why you should dread my coming. 

unde agger comportari posset nihil erat reliquum (B. C. ii. 15), there was noth- 
ing left from which an embankment could be got together. 

Note 1. — After general negatives like nemo est qui, the Subjunctive is regular; 
after general affirmatives like sunt qui, it is the prevailing construction, but the Indic- 
ative sometimes occurs; after multi (non null!, quidam) sunt qui, and similar expres- 
sions in which the antecedent is partially denned, the choice of mood depends on the 
shade of meaning which the writer wishes to express : — 

sunt bestiae quaedam in quibus inest aliquid simile virtiitis (Fin. v. 38), there are 

certain animals in which there is something like virtue. 
But, — invent! mult! sunt qui vitam profundere pro patria parati cssent (Off. i. 84), 
many were found of such a character as to be ready to give their lives for 
their country. 
Note 2. — Characteristic clauses with sunt qui etc. are sometimes called Relative 
Clauses with an Indefinite Antecedent, but are to be carefully distinguished from the 
Indefinite Relative in protasis (§ 520). 

Note 3. — The phrases est cum, fuit cum, etc. are used like est qui, sunt qui: as, — 
ac fuit cum mini quoque initium requiescend! fore iiistum arbitrarer (De Or. i. 1), and 
there was a time ivhen I thought a beginning of rest would be justifiable on my part. 

b. A Relative Clause of Characteristic may follow unus and solus : 
nil admlrari prope res est una sSlaque quae possit facere et servare beatum 

(Hor. Ep. i. 6. 1), to wonder at nothing is almost the sole and only thing 
that can make and keep one happy. 
solus es cuius in victoria ceciderit nemo nisi armatus (Deiot. 34), you are the 
only man in whose victory no one has fallen unless armed. 



§535] CLAUSES OF CHARACTERISTIC 345 

e. A clause of Result or Characteristic with quam ut, quam qui 
(rarely with quam alone), may be used after comparatives : — 

Canachi signa rigidiora sunt quam ut imitentur veritatem (Brut. 70), the statues 

of Canachus are too stiff to represent nature (stiff er than that they should). 

maiores arbores caedebant quam quas ferre miles posset (Liv. xxxiii. 5), they cut 

trees too large for a soldier to carry (larger than what a soldier could carry). 

Note. — This construction corresponds in sense to the English too . . . to. 

d. A relative clause of characteristic may express restriction or 
proviso (cf. § 528. b) : — 

quod sciam, so far as I know (lit. as to^what I know). 

Catonis orationes, quas quidem invenerim (Brut. 65), the speeches of Cato, at 

least such as I have discovered. 
servus est nemo, qui modo tolerabill condicione sit servittitis (Cat. iv. 16), 

there is not a slave, at least in any tolerable condition of slavery. 

e, A Relative Clause of Characteristic may express cause or conces- 
sion : — ■ 

peccasse mihi videor qui a te discesserim (Fam. xvi. 1), I seem to myself to 
have done wrong because I have left you. [Causal.] 

virum simplicem qui nos nihil celet (Or. 230), O guileless man, who hides noth- 
ing from us ! [Causal . ] 

egomet qui sero Graecas litteras attigissem, tamen complures Athenis dies 
sum commoratus (De Or. i. 82), I myself though I began Greek literature 
late, yet, etc. (lit. [a man] who, etc.). [Concessive.] 

Note 1. — In this use the relative is equivalent to cum is etc. It is often preceded 
by ut, utpote, or quippe : — 

nee consul, ut qui id ipsum quaesisset, moram certamini fecit (Liv. xlii. 7), nor 
did the consul delay the fight, since he had sought that very thing (as [being 
one] who had sought, etc.). 
Lucius, f rater eius, utpote qui peregre depugnarit, familiam ducit (Phil. v. 30), 
Lucius, his brother, leads his household, inasmuch as he is a man who has 
fought it out abroad. 
convivia cum patre non inibat, quippe qui ne in oppidum quidem nisi perraro 
veniret (Rose. Am. 52), he did not go to dinner parties with his father, since 
he did not even come to town except very rarely. 
Note 2. — The Relative of Cause or Concession is merely a variety of the Charac- 
teristic construction. The quality expressed by the Subjunctive is connected with the 
action of the main verb either as cause on account of which (since) or as hindrance 
in spite of which (although) . 

/. DignuSj indignuSj aptus, idoneus take a subjunctive clause with 
a relative (rarely ut). The negative is non : — 

digna in quibus elabSrarent (Tusc. i. 1), (things) worth spending their toil on 

(worthy on which they should, etc.). 
digna res est ubi tu nervos intendas tuos (Ter. Eun. 312), the affair is worthy 
of your stretching your sinews (worthy wherein you should, etc.). 



346 SYNTAX : CLAUSES OF RESULT [§§ 535-537 

idoneus qui impetret (Manil. hi), fit to obtain. 

indlgni ut redimeremur (Liv. xxii. 59. 17), unworthy to be ransomed. 

Note 1. — This construction is sometimes explained as a relative clause of purpose, 
but it is more closely related to characteristic. 

Note 2. — With dignus etc., the poets often use the Infinitive: — 
fons rivo dare nomen idoneus (Hor. Ep. i. 16. 12), a source fit to give a name to a 

stream. 
aetas mollis et apta regi (Ov. A. A. i. 10), a time of life soft and easy to be guided. 
vivere dignus eras (Ov. M. x. 633), you were worthy to live. 

CLAUSES OF RESULT (CONSECUTIVE CLAUSES) 

536. The Subjunctive in Consecutive Clauses is a development of the use of that 
mood in Clauses of Characteristic (as explained in § 534) . 

537. Clauses of Result take the Subjunctive introduced by ut, so 
that (negative, ut non), or by a relative pronoun or relative adverb. 

1. Pure Clauses of Result, with ut or ut non, express the result of 
the main verb in the form of a modifying clause : — 

tanta vis probitatis est ut earn in hoste diligamus (Lael. 29), so great is the 

power of goodness that we love it even in an enemy. 
pugnatur acriter ad novissimum agmen, adeo ut paene terga convertant 

(B. C. i. 80), there is sharp fighting in the rear, so (to such a degree) that 

they almost take flight. 
multa rumor adfingebat, ut paene bellum confectum videretur (id. i. 53), 

rumor added many false reports, so that the war seemed almost ended. 

2. Relative Clauses of Result are introduced by the relative pro- 
noun qui or a relative adverb (ubi, unde, quo, etc.). The antecedent is 
expressed or implied in the main clause. 

The Relative in this construction is equivalent to ut with the corre- 
sponding demonstrative : — qui = ut is (etc.), ubi = ut ibi, and so on : 
nam est innocentia affectio talis animi quae noceat neminl (Tusc. iii. 16), for 

innocence is such a quality of mind as to do harm to no one. 
sunt aliae causae quae plane efficiant (Top. 59), there are other causes such as 

to bring to pass. 
nulla est celeritas quae possit cum animi celeritate contendere (Tusc. i. 43), 

there is no swiftness which can compare with the swiftness of the mind. 
quis navigavit qui non se mortis perlculo committeret (Manil. 31), who went to 

sea who did not incur the peril of death ? 

Note 1. — Since the relative clause of Result is a development from the relative 
clause of Characteristic (§ 534) , no sharp line can be drawn between the two construc- 
tions. In doubtful cases, it is better to attempt no distinction or to describe the clause 
as one of Characteristic. 

Note 2. — Clauses of Result are often introduced by such correlative words as tarn, 
talis, tantus, ita, sic, adeo, usque eo, which belong to the main clause. 



§§ 537, 538] CLAUSES OF RESULT 347 

a. A Negative Eesult is introduced by ut n5n, ut ngm5, qui nCn/etc, 
not by ne : — 

inultis gravibusque volneribus confectus ut iam se" sustinere non posset (B. G. 

ii. 25), used up with many severe wounds so that he could no longer stand. 
tanta vl in Pompel equites impetum fecerunt ut eorum nemo cSnsisteret (B.C. 

iii. 93), they attacked Pompey's cavalry with such vigor that not one of 

them stood his ground. 
nemo est tarn senex qui se annum non putet posse vlvere (Cat. M. 24), nobody 
is so old as not to think that he can live a year. 

Note. — When the result implies an effect intended (not a simple purpose) , ut ne 
or ne is sometimes used as being less positive than ut non : — [librum] ita corrigas ne 
mihi noceat (Caecina, Fam. vi. 7. 6), correct the book so that it may not hurt me. 

b. Frequently a clause of result or characteristic is used in a re- 
strictive sense, and so amounts to a Proviso (cf . § 535. d) : — 

hoc ita est utile ut ne plane inludamur ab accusatoribus (Rose. Am. 55), this 
is so far useful that we are not utterly mocked by the accusers (i.e. useful 
only on this condition, that, etc.). 

nihil autem est molestum quod non desideres (Cat. M. 47), but nothing is 
troublesome which ( = provided that) you do not miss. 

c. The clause of result is sometimes expressed in English by the 
Infinitive with to or so as to or an equivalent : — 

tam longe aberam ut non viderem, I was too far away to see (so far that I 
did not see ; cf. § 535. c). 

Note. — Result is never expressed by the Infinitive in Latin except by the poets in 
a few passages (§ 461. a). 

538. The constructions of Purpose and Result are precisely 
alike in the affirmative (except sometimes in tense sequence, 
§ 485. e) ; but, in the negative, Purpose takes ne, Result ut n5n 
etc. : — 

ctistoditus est ne effugeret, he was guarded in order that he might not escape. 
ctistoditus est ut non effugeret, he was guarded so that he did not escape. 

So in negative Purpose clauses ne quis, n6 quid, nS ullus, ng quo, nS 
quando, nScubi, etc. are almost always used ; in negative Result clauses, 
ut nemo, ut nihil, ut nullus, etc. : — 

(1) cernere ne quis eos, neu quis contingere posset (Aen. i. 413), that no one 

might see them, no one touch them. [Purpose.] 
ne quandS liberls proscrlptorum bona patria reddantur (Rose. Am. 145), lest 

at some time the patrimony of the proscribed should be restored to their 

children. 
ipse ne qu5 inciderem, revert! Formias (Att. viii. 3. 7), that I might not come 

upon him anywhere, I returned to Formioe. 



S48 SYNTAX : CAUSAL CLAUSES [§§ 538-540 

drispositis exploratoribus necubi RomanI copias tradiicerent (B. G. vii. 35), 
having stationed scouts here and there in order that the Romans might 
not lead their troops across anywhere. 

(2) multi ita sunt imbecilli senes ut nullum officl munus exsequl possint (Cat. 
M. 35), many old men are so feeble that they cannot perform any duty to 
society. [Result.] 

qui summum bonum sic Instituit ut nihil habeat cum virtfite coniunctuni 
(Off. i. 5), who has so settled the highest good that it has nothing in com- 
mon with virtue. 

For clauses of Result or Characteristic with quin, see § 559. For Substantive Clauses 
of Result, see §§ 567-571. 

CAUSAL CLAUSES 

539. Causal Clauses take either the Indicative or the Subjunctive, according to 
their construction ; the idea of cause being contained, not in the mood itself, but in 
the form of the argument (by implication), in an antecedent of causal meaning (like 
propterea), or in the connecting particles. 

Quod is in origin the relative pronoun (stem quo-) used adverbially in the accusative 
neuter (cf . § 214. d) and gradually sinking to the position of a colorless relative con- 
junction (cf. English that and see §222). Its use as a causal particle is an early 
special development. Quia is perhaps an accusative plural neuter of the relative stem 
qui-, and seems to have developed its causal sense more distinctly than quod, and at 
an earlier period. It is used (very rarely) as an interrogative, why? (so in classical 
Latin with nam only), and may, like quando, have developed from an interrogative to 
a relative particle. 

Quoniam (for quom iam) is also of relative origin (quom being a case-form of the 
pronominal stem quo-). It occurs in old Latin in the sense of when (cf. quom, cum), 
from which the causal meaning is derived (cf . cum causal) . The Subjunctive with quod 
and quia depends on the principle of Informal Indirect Discourse (§ 592) . 

Quando is probably the interrogative quam {how ?) compounded with a form of the 
pronominal stem do- (cf . dum, do-nec) . It originally denoted time (first interrogatively, 
then as a relative), and thus came to signify cause. Unlike quod and quia, it is not 
used to state a reason in informal indirect discourse and therefore is never followed 
by the Subjunctive. 

540. The Causal Particles quod and quia take the Indicative, 
when the reason is given on the authority of the writer or 
speaker; the Subjunctive, when the reason is given on the 
authority of another: — 

1. Indicative : — 
cum tibi agam gratias quod me vlvere coegisti (Att. iii, 3), when I m,ay thank 

you that you have forced me to live. 
cur igitur pacem nolo ? quia turpis est (Phil. vii. 9), why then do I not wish 

for peace f Because it is disgraceful. 
ita fit ut adsint propterea quod officium sequuntur, taceant autem quia peri- 

culum vltant (Rose. Am. 1), so it happens that they attend because they 

follow duty, but are silent because they seek to avoid danger. 



§ 540] CAUSAL CLAUSES 349 

2. Subjunctive: — 

mihi gratulabare quod audisses me meam pristinam dignitatem obtinere 

(Fam. iv. 14. 1), you congratulated me because [as you said] you had 

heard that I had regained my former dignity. 
noctu ambulabat Themistocles quod somnum capere non posset (Tusc. iv. 44), 

Themistocles used to walk about at night because [as he said] he could not 

sleep. 
mea mater irata est quia non redierim (PL Cist. 101), my mother is angry 

because I didn't return. 

Note 1. —Quod introduces either a fact or a statement, and accordingly takes either 
the Indicative or the Subjunctive. Quia regularly introduces a fact ; hence it rarely 
takes the Subjunctive. Quoniam, inasmuch as, since, when now, now that, has refer- 
ence to motives, excuses, justifications, and the like and takes the Indicative. 

Note 2. — Under this head what the speaker himself thought under other circum- 
stances may have the Subjunctive (§592. 3. n.) : as, — ego laeta visa sum quia soror 
venisset (PL Mil. 387), 1 seemed (in my dream) glad because my sister had come. 

So with quod even a verb of saying may be in the Subjunctive: as, — rediit quod 
se oblitum nescio quid diceret (Off. i. 40), he returned because he said he had forgotten 
something. 

Note 3. — Non quod, n5n quia, n5n quo, introducing a reason expressly to deny it, take 
the Subjunctive ; but the Indicative sometimes occurs when the statement is in itself 
true, though not the true reason. In the negative, n5n quin (with the Subjunctive) 
may be used in nearly the same sense as non quod non. After a comparative, quam 
quo or quam quod is used : — 

pugiles ingemescunt, non quod doleant, sed quia profundenda voce omne corpus 

intenditur (Tusc. ii. 56), boxers groan, not because they are in pain, but 

because by giving vent to the voice the whole body is put in a state of 

tension. 

non quia rectior ad Alpis via esset, sed credens (Liv. xxi. 31. 2), not because the 

route to the Alps ivas more direct, but believing, etc. 
non quin pari virtute et voluntate alii fuerint, sed tantam causam non habuerunt 
(Phil. vii. 6), not that there were not others of equal courage and good-will, 
but they had not so strong a reason. 
haec amOre magis impulsus scribenda ad te putavi, quam quo te arbitrager monitis 
et praeceptis egere (Fam. x. 3. 4), this I thought I ought to write to you, 
rather from the impulse of (prompted by) affection than because I thought 
that you needed advice and suggestion. 

a. Quoniam and quando, since, introduce a reason given on the 
authority of the writer or speaker, and take the Indicative : — 

locus est a me, quoniam ita Murena voluit, retractandus (Mur. 54), I must 

review the point, since Murena has so wished. 
quando ita vis, di bene vortant (PL Trin. 573), since you so wish, may the 

gods bless the undertaking. 
quando ad maiora nati sumus (Fin. v. 21), since we are born for greater things. 

Note. — The Subjunctive with quoniam is unclassical. Quando, since, in the causal 
sense, is mostly archaic or late. Quando, when, is used as interrogative, relative, and 
indefinite : as, — quando ? hodie, when f to-day ; si quando, if ever. 



350 SYNTAX: TEMPORAL CLAUSES [§§540-542 

b. Causal clauses introduced by quod, quia, quoniam, and quando 
take the Subjunctive in Indirect Discourse, like any other dependent 
clause (see § 580). 

c» A Eelative, when used to express cause, regularly takes the Sub- 
junctive (see § 535. e). 

d. Cum causal takes the Subjunctive (see § 549). 

For Substantive Clauses with quod, see § 572. 

TEMPORAL CLAUSES 

541. Temporal Clauses are introduced by particles which are almost all of rela- 
tive origin. They are construed like other relative clauses, except where they have 
developed into special idiomatic constructions. 1 

For list of Temporal Particles, see p. 138. 

Temporal Clauses may be classified as follows : — 

I. Conditional Relative Clauses: ubi, ut, cum, quando, in Protasis (§ 542). 
II. Clauses with postquam, ubi, etc. (Indicative), (§543). 

III. Clauses with cum ( »• £ um tem P°, ral (§§ ^48) 

( 2. Cum causal or concessive (§ 549). 

IV. Clauses with antequam and priusquam (Indicative or Subjunctive) (§ 551). 
V. Clauses with dum, donee, and quoad (Indicative or Subjunctive) (§§ 552-556). 

Conditional Relative Clauses 

542. The particles ubi, ut, cum, quando, either alone or com- 
pounded with -cumque, may be used as Indefinite Relatives (in the 
sense of whenever), and have the constructions of Protasis (cf. 
§514):- 

cum id malum negas esse, capior (Tusc. ii. 29), whenever you (the indi- 
vidual disputant) deny it to be an evil, I am misled. [Present general 
condition.] 

quod profecto cum me nulla vis cogeret, facere non auderem (Phil. v. 51), 
which I would surely not venture to do, as long as no force compelled me. 
[Present, contrary to fact: cf. § 517.] 

cum videas eos dolore non frangl, debeas exlstimare, etc. (Tusc. ii. 66), when 
you see that those are not broken by pain, you ought to infer, etc. [Pres- 
ent general condition: cf. § 518. a.] 

cum rosam viderat, turn incipere ver arbitrabatur (Verr. v. 27), whenever he saw 
a rose he thought spring had begun. [Past general condition : cf . § 518. b. ] 

id ubi dixisset, hastam in finis eorum emittebat (Liv. i. 32. 13), when he had 
said this, he would cast the spear into their territories. [Past General 
Condition, repeated action : see § 518. c] 

1 With all temporal particles the Subjunctive is often found depending on some 
other principle of construction. (See Intermediate Clauses, § 591.) 



§ 543] POSTQUAM, UBI, ETC. 351 

Temporal Clauses with postquam, ubi, etc. 

543. The particles postquam (posteaquam), ubi, ut (ut primum, ut 
semel), simul atque (simul ac, or simul alone), take the Indicative 
(usually in the perfect or the historical present) : — 

milites postquam victoriam adept! sunt, nihil reliqui victis fecere (Sail. Cat. 11), 

v)hen the soldiers had won the victory, they left nothing to the vanquished. 
posteaquam forum attigisti, nihil fecisti nisi, etc. (Fam. xv. 16. 3), since you 

came to the forum, you have done nothing except, etc. 
ubi omnis idem sentire intellexit, posterum diem ptignae constituit (B. G. 

iii. 23), when he understood that all agreed (thought the same thing), he 

appointed the next day for the battle. 
Catillna, ubi eos convenisse videt, secedit (Sail. Cat. 20), when Catiline sees 

that they have come together, he retires. 
Pompeius ut equitatum suum pulsum vidit, acie excessit (B. C. iii. 94), yjhen 

Pompey saw his cavalry beaten, he left the field. 
ut semel e Plraeeo eloquentia evecta est (Brut. 51), as soon as eloquence had 

set sail from the Pirceus. 
nostrl simul in arido constiterunt, in hostls impetum fecerunt (B. G. iv. 26), 

our men, as soon as they had taken a position on dry ground, made an 

attack on the enemy. 
simul atque introductus est, rem confecit (Clu. 40), as soon as he was brought 

in, he did the job. 

a. These particles less commonly take the Imperfect or Pluperfect 
Indicative. The Imperfect denotes a past state of things ; the Plu- 
perfect, an action completed in past time : — 

postquam structl utrimque stabant, duces in medium procedunt (Liv. i. 

23), when they stood in array on both sides, the generals advance into 

the midst. 
P. Africanus posteaquam bis consul et censor fuerat (Caecil. 69), when Afri- 

canus had been (i.e. had the dignity of having been) twice consul and 

censor. 
postquam id difficilius visum est, neque f acultas perficiendi dabatur, ad Pom- 

peium transierunt (B. C. iii. 60), when this seemed too hard, and no means 

of effecting it were given, they passed over to Pompey. 
post diem quintum quam iterum barbarl male pugnaverant [= victi sunt], 

legati a Boccho veniunt (lug. 102), the fifth day after the barbarians were 

beaten the second time, envoys come from Bocchus. 
haec iuventiitem, ubi familiares opes defecerant, ad facinora incendebant 

(Sail. Cat. 13), when their inherited resources had given out, etc. 
ubi pericula virtute propulerant (id. 6), when they had dispelled the dangers by 

their valor. 

For the use of ubi, ut, either alone or compounded with -cumque, as Indefinite Rela- 
tives, see § 542. 



352 SYNTAX : TEMPORAL CLAUSES [§§ 544, 545 

Uses of Gum 

544. The conjunction cum (quom) is a case-form of the relative pronoun qui. It 
inherits from qui its subordinating force, and in general shares its constructions. 
But it was early specialized to a temporal meaning (cf. turn, dum) , and its range of usage 
was therefore less wide than that of qui ; it could not, for example, introduce clauses 
of purpose or of result. 

With the Indicative, besides the simple expression of definite time (corresponding to 
simple relative clauses with the Indicative), it has a few special uses, — conditional, 
explicative, cum inversum — all easily derived from the temporal use. 

With the Subjunctive, cum had a development parallel to that of the qui-clause of 
Characteristic, — a development not less extensive and equally peculiar to Latin, 
From defining the time the cum-clause passed over to the description of the time by 
means of its attendant circumstances of cause or concession (cf. since, while). 

In particular, cum with the Subjunctive was used in narrative (hence the past 
tenses, Imperfect and Pluperfect) as a descriptive clause of time. As, however, the 
present participle in Latin is restricted in its use and the perfect active participle is 
almost wholly lacking, the historical or narrative cum-clause came into extensive use 
to supply the deficiency. In classical writers the narrative cum-clause (with the Sub- 
junctive) has pushed back the defining clause (with the Imperfect or Pluperfect Indica- 
tive) into comparative infrequency, and is itself freely used where the descriptive or 
characterizing force is scarcely perceptible (cf. the qui-clause of Characteristic, § 534) . 



Cum Temporal 

545, A temporal clause with cum, when, and some past tense of 
the Indicative dates or defines the time at which the action of the 
main verb occurred : — 

eo [lituo] regiones dlrexit turn cum urbem condidit (Div. i. 30), lie traced with 

it the quarters [of the sky] at the time he founded the city. 
cum occiditur Sex. Roscius, ibidem fuerunt servi (Rose. Am. 120), when 

lloscius was slain, the slaves were on the spot [occiditur is historical 

present. ] 
quein quidem cum ex urbe pellebam, hoc providebam animo (Cat. iii. 16), 

when I was trying to force him (conative imperfect) from the city, 1 

looked forward to this. 
fulgentls gladios hostium videbant Decil cum in aciem eorum inruebant (Tusc. 

ii. 59), the Decii saw the flashing sivords of the enemy when they rushed 

upon their line. 
turn cum in Asia res magnas permultl amlserant (Manil. 19), at that time, 

when many had lost great fortunes in Asia. 

Note 1. — This is the regular use with all tenses in early Latin, and at all times 
with the Perfect and the Historical Present (as with postquam etc.). With the Imper- 
fect and Pluperfect the Indicative use is (in classical Latin) much less common than 
the Subjunctive use defined below (§546). 

Note 2. — This construction must not be confused with that of cum, ivhenever, m 
General Conditions (§ 542). 



§ 545, 546] CUM TEMPORAL 853 

a. When the time of the main clause and that of the temporal 
clause are absolutely identical, cum takes the Indicative in the same 
tense as that of the main verb : — 

maxima sum laetitia adfeclus cum audivi consulem te factum esse (Fam. 
xv. 7), I was very much pleased when I heard that you had been elected 
consul. 

546. A temporal clause with cum and the Imperfect or Pluper- 
fect Subjunctive describes the circumstances that accompanied or 
preceded the action of the main verb: — 

cum essem otiosus in Tusculano, accepl tuas litteras (Fam. ix. 18. 1), vjhen I 

vjas taking my ease in my house at Tuscuhun, I received your letter. 
cum servill bello premeretur (Manil. 30), when she (Italy) was under the load 

of the Servile War. 
cum id nuntiatum esset, maturat (B. G. i. 7), when this had been reported, he 

made (makes) haste. 
cum ad Cybistra qulnque dies essem moratus, regem Ariobarzanem insidils 

llberavl (Fam. xv. 4. 6), after remaining at Cybistra for five days, I freed 

King Ariobarzanes from plots. 
is cum ad me Laodieeam venisset mecumque ego eum vellem, repente per- 

cussus est atroeissimis litteris (id. ix. 25. 3), ivhen he had come to me at 

Laodicea and I ivished him to remain with me, he was suddenly, etc. 

Note 1. — This construction is very common in narrative, and cum in this use is often 
called narrative cum. 

Note 2. — Cum with the Imperfect or Pluperfect Indicative does not (like cum with 
the Imperfect or Pluperfect Subjunctive) describe the time by its circumstances; it 
defines the time of the main verb by denoting a coexistent state of things (Imperfect 
Indicative) or a result attained when the action of the maiu verb took place (Pluper- 
fect). Thus the construction is precisely that of postquam etc. (§ 543. a). 

Note 3. — The distinction between the uses defined in §§545, 546, may be illustrated 
by the following examples: (1) He had a fever when he was in Spain (Shakspere). 
Here the whe?i-&3iuse defines the time when Caesar had the fever, — namely, in the year 
of his Spanish campaign (b.c. 49). In Latin we should use cum with the Imperfect 
Indicative. (2) Columbus discovered America when he was seeking a new route to 
India; here the when-cl&use does not define or date the time of the discovery; it 
merely describes the circumstances under which America was discovered, — namely, 
in the course of a voyage undertaken for another purpose. In Latin we should use the 
Imperfect Subjunctive. 

Note 4. — The distinction explained in Note 3 is unknown to early Latin. In 
Plautus quom always has the Indicative unless the Subjunctive is required for some 
other reason. 

a. When the principal action is expressed in the form of a tem- 
poral clause with cum, and the definition of the time becomes the 
main clause, cum takes the Indicative. 

Here the logical relations of the two clauses are inverted ; hence 
cum is in this use called cum inversuvi : — 



354 SYNTAX : TEMPORAL CLAUSES [§§ 546-649 

di6s nondum decern intercesserant, cum ille alter filius infans necatur (Clu. 

28), ten days had not yet passed, when the other infant son was killed. 

[Instead of when ten days had not yet passed, etc. ] 
iamque lux appargbat cum prdcedit ad milites (Q. C. vii. 8. 3), and day was 

already dawning when he appears before the soldiers. 
hoc facere noctu apparabant, cum matres familiae repente in publicum pr5- 

currerunt (B. G. vii. 26), they were preparing to do this by night, when the 

women suddenly ran out into the streets. 

547. Present time with cum temporal is denoted by the Pres- 
ent Indicative ; future time, by the Future or Future Perfect 
Indicative : — 

incidunt tempora, cum ea, quae maxime videjitur dlgna esse iusto homine, 
fiunt contraria (Off. i. 31), times occur when those things which seem 
especially worthy of the upright man, become the opposite. 

n6n dubit&bo dare operam ut te videam, cum id satis commode facere poterS 
(Fam. xiii. 1), I shall not hesitate to take pains to see you, when I can do 
it conveniently. 

longum illud tempus cum non er5 (Att. xii. 18), that long time when I shall 
be no more. 

cum v§neris, cognosces (Fam. v. 7. 3), when you come (shall have come), 
you will find out. 

548. Cum, whenever, takes the construction of a relative clause 
in a general condition (see § 542). 

For present time, either the Present or the Perfect Indicative is 
used ; for past time, regularly the Pluperfect Indicative. 
For est cum etc., see § 535. a. n. 3 . 

Cum Causal or Concessive 

549. Cum causal or concessive takes the Subjunctive : — 

id difficile non est, cum tan turn equitatu valeamus (B. C. iii. 86), this is not 
difficult since we are so strong in cavalry. [Causal.] 

cum solitudo Insidiarum et metfis plena sit, ratio ipsa monet amicitias com- 
parare (Fin. i. 66), since solitude is full of treachery and fear, reason it- 
self prompts us to contract friendships. [Causal.] 

cum prlml ordines concidissent, tamen acerrime reliqui resistebant (B. G. 
vii. 62), though the first ranks had fallen, still the others resisted vigor- 
ously. [Concessive.] 

brevi spatio legiones numero hominum expleverat, cum initiS non amplius 
duSbus milibus habuisset (Sail. Cat. 56), in a short time he had filled 
out the legions with their complement of men, though at the start he had 
not had more than two thousand. [Concessive.] 



§§ 549-551] ANTEQUAM AND PRIUSQUAM 355 

Cum causal may usually be translated by since; cum concessive by 
although or ivhile; either, occasionally, by when. 

Note 1. — Cum in these uses is often emphasized by ut, utpote, quippe, praesertim: 
as, — nee reprehendo: quippe cum ipse istam reprehensionem non fugerim (Att. x. 3 a), 
I find no fault ; since I myself did not escape that blame. 

Note 2. — These causal and concessive uses of cum are of relative origin and are 
parallel to qui causal and concessive (§535. e). The attendant circumstances are re- 
garded as the cause of the action, or as tending to hinder it. 

Note 3. — In early Latin cum (quom) causal and concessive usually takes the Indic- 
ative: as, — quom tua res distrahitur, utinam videam (PI. Trin. 617), since your prop- 
erty is being torn in pieces, that I may see, etc. 

a. Cum with the Indicative frequently introduces an explanatory 
statement, and is sometimes equivalent to quod, on the ground that: — 

cum tacent, clamant (Cat. i. 21), when they are silent, they cry out (i.e. their 

silence is an emphatic expression of their sentiments). 
gratulor tibi cum tantum vales apud Dolabellam (Fam. ix. 14. 3), I congratu- 
late you that you are so strong with Dolabella. 
Note. — This is merely a special use of cum temporal expressing coincident time 
(§545. a). 

b. Cum . . . turn, signifying both . . . and, usually takes the Indica- 
tive ; but when cum approaches the sense of while or though, the Sub- 
junctive is used (§ 549) : — 

cum multa non probd, turn illud in prlmls (Fin. i. 18), while there are many 
things I do not approve, there is this in chief. [Indicative.] 

cum difficile est, turn ne aequum quidem (Lael. 26), not only is it difficult 
but even unjust. 

cum res tota ficta sit puerlliter, turn ne efficit quidem quod vult (Fin. i. 19), 
while the whole thing is childishly got up, he does not even make his point 
(accomplish what he wishes). [Subjunctive ; approaching cum causal.] 

Antequam and Priusquam 

550. Antequam and priusquam, before, introduce Clauses of Time which resemble 
those with cum temporal in their constructions. Priusquam consists of two parts (often 
written separately and sometimes separated by other words) , the comparative adverb 
prius, sooner (before), which really modifies the main verb, and the relative particle 
quam, than, which introduces the subordinate clause. The latter is therefore a rela- 
tive clause, and takes the Indicative or the Subjunctive (like other relative clauses) 
according to the sense intended. The Subjunctive with priusquam is related to that of 
purpose (§ 529) and is sometimes called the Anticipatory or Prospective Subjunctive. 
Antequam, like priusquam, consists of two words, the first of which is the adverb ante, 
before, modifying the main verb. Its constructions are the same as those of priusquam, 
but the latter is commoner in classic prose. 

551. Antequam and priusquam take sometimes the Indicative, 
sometimes the Subjunctive. 



356 SYNTAX : TEMPORAL CLAUSES [§ 551 

a. With antequam or priusquam the Perfect Indicative states a 
fact in past time : — 

antequam tuas legi litteras, hominem Ire cupiebam (Att. ii. 7. 2), before I 

read your letter, I wished the man to go. 
neque ante dimisit eum quam fidem dedit adulescens (Liv. xxxix. 10), and 

she did not let the young man go till he pledged his faith. 
neque prius fugere dSstiterunt quam ad flunien pervenerunt (B. G. i. 53), nor 

did they stop running until they reached the river. 

Note. — The Perfect Indicative in this construction is regular when the main 
clause is negative and the main verb is in an historical tense. The Imperfect Indicative 
is rare; the Pluperfect Indicative, very rare. The Perfect Subjunctive is rare and 
ante-classical, except in Indirect Discourse. 

b. With antequam or priusquam the Imperfect Subjunctive is com- 
mon when the subordinate verb implies purpose or expectancy in past 
time, or when the action that it denotes did not take place : — 

ante pugnarl coeptum est quam satis instrueretur acies (Liv. xxii. 4. 7), the 
fight was begun before the line could be properly formed. 

priusquam tu suum sibi venderes, ipse possedit (Phil. ii. 96), before you could 
sell him his own property, he took possession of it himself. 

priusquam telum abiei posset aut nostrl propius aecederent, omnis Van acies 
terga vertit (B. C. ii. 34), before a weapon could be thrown or our men 
approached nearer, the whole line about Varus took flight. 

Note 1. — The Pluperfect Subjunctive is rare, except in Indirect Discourse by se- 
quence of tenses for the Future Perfect Indicative (§ 484. c): as, — antequam homines 
nefarii de meo adventu audire potuissent, in Macedoniam perrexi (Plane. 98), before 
those evil men could learn of my coming ', i" arrived in Macedonia. 

Note 2. — After an historical present the Present Subjunctive is used instead of the 
Imperfect: as, — neque ab eo prius Domitiani milites discedunt quam in conspectum 
Caesaris deducatur (B. C. i. 22), and the soldiers of Domitius did (do) not leave him 
until he was (is) conducted into Caesar's presence. So, rarely, the Perfect Subjunctive 
(as B. G. iii. 18). 

c. Antequam and priusquam, when referring to future time, take the 
Present or Future Perfect Indicative ; rarely the Present Subjunctive: 

priusquam de ceteris rebus responded, de amicitia pauca dlcam (Phil. ii. 3), 
before I reply to the rest, I will say a little about friendship. 

non dSfatigabor antequam illorum ancipites vias percepero (De Or. iii. 145), 
I shall not weary till I have traced out their doubtful ways. 

antequam veniat litteras mittet (Leg. Agr. ii. 53), before he comes, he will send 
a letter. 

Note 1. — The Future Indicative is very rare. 

Note 2. — In a few cases the Subjunctive of present general condition is found with 
antequam and priusquam (cf. §518. a): as, — in omnibus negotiis priusquam aggrediare, 
adhibenda est praeparatio diligens (Off. i. 73), in all undertakings^ before you proceed 
to action, careful preparation must be used. 



§§ 562-5-54] BUM, BONEC, AND QUOAD 357 

Dum, Donee, and Quoad 

552. As an adverb meaning for a ti?ne, awhile, dum is found in old Latin, chiefly 
as an enclitic (cf, vixdum, ndndum). Its use as a conjunction comes either through 
correlation (cf . cum . . . turn, si ... . sic) or through substitution for a conjunction, as 
in the English the moment I saw it, I understood. Quoad is a compound of the rela- 
tive quo, up to lohich point, with ad. The origin and early history of donee are unknown. 

553. Dum and quoad, until, take the Present or Imperfect Sub- 
junctive in temporal clauses implying intention or expectancy : — 

exspectas fortasse dum dicat (Tusc. ii. 17), you are waiting perhaps for him 
to say (until he say). [Dum is especially common after exspecto.] 

dum reliquae naves convenirent, ad horam nonam exspectavit (B. G. iv. 23), 
he waited till the ninth hour for the rest of the ships to join him. 

comitia dilata [sunt] dum lex ferretur (Att. iv. 17. 3), the election was post- 
poned until a law should be passed. 

an id exspectamus, quoad ne vestigium quidem Asiae civitatum atque urbium 
relinquatur (Phil. xi. 25), shall we wait for this until not a trace is left of 
the states and cities of Asia f 

Epaminondas exercebatur plurimum luctando ad eum finem quoad stans 
complect! posset atque contendere (Nep. Epam. 2), Epaminondas trained 
himself in wrestling so far as to be able (until he should be able) to grapple 
standing and fight (in that way). 

Note 1. — Donee is similarly used in poetry and later Latin: as ? — et duxit longe 
donee curvata coirent inter se capita (Aen. xi. 860), and drew it (the bow) until the 
curved tips touched each other. 

Note 2. — Dum, until, may be used with the Present or Future Perfect Indicative 
to state a future fact when there is no idea of intention or expectancy ; but this con- 
struction is rare in classic prose. The Future is also found in early Latin. Donee, until, 
is similarly used, in poetry and early Latin, with the Present and Future Perfect Indica- 
tive, rarely with the Future : — 

ego in Arcano opperior dum ista cognosco (Attc x. 3), I am waiting in the villa at 

Arcse, until I find this out. [This is really dum, while.] 
mihi usque ciirae erit quid agas, dum quid egeris sciero (Fam. xii. 19. 3), I shall 
always feel anxious as to what you are doing, until I actually know (shall 
have known) what you have done. 
delicta maiorum lues donee templa refeceris (Hor. Od. iii. 6. 1), you shall suffer for 

the sins of your ancestors until you rebuild the temples. 
ter centum regnabitur annos, donee geminam partu dabit Ilia prolein (Aen. i. 272), 
sway shall be held for thrice a hundred years, until Ilia shall give birth t6 
twin offspring. 

554. Donee and quoad, until, with the Perfect Indicative denote 
an actual fact in past time : — 

donee rediit silentium fuit (Liv. xxiii. 31. 9), there was silence until he returned. 
usque eo timui donee ad reiciendos indices venimus (Yerr. ii. 1. 17), I was 

anxious until the moment when we came to challenge the jurors. 
ROmae fuerunt quoad L. Metellus in provinciam profectus est (id. ii. 62) , 

they remained at Rome until Lucius Metellus set out for the province. 



358 SYNTAX: TEMPORAL CLAUSES [§§554-556 

Note. — Dum, until, with the Perfect Indicative is rare: as, — mansit in condi- 
cione usque ad eum finem dum iudices reiecti sunt (Verr. i. 16), he remained true to the 
agreement until the jurors were challenged. 

555. Dum, donee, and quoad, as long as, take the Indicative : — 
dum anima est, spes esse dlcitur (Att. ix. 10. 3), as long as there is life, there 

is said to be hope. 

dum praesidia tilla fuerunt, in Sullae praesidiis fuit (Rose. Am. 126), so long 
as there were any garrisons, he was in the garrisons of Sulla. 

dum longius a munitione aberant GallJ, plus multitudine telorum proficiebant 
(B. G. vii. 82), so long as the Gauls were at a distance from the fortifica- 
tions, they had the advantage because of their missiles. 

donee gratus eram tibi, Persarum vigul rege beatior (Hor. Od. iii. 9. 1), as 
long as I enjoyed thy favor, I flourished happier than the king of the 
Persians. 

quoad potuit fortissime restitit (B. G. iv. 12), he resisted bravely as long as 
he could. 

Note 1. — Donee in this use is confined to poetry and later writers. 

Note 2. — Quam diu, as long as, takes the Indicative only: as, — se oppidotam diu 
tenuit quam diu in provincia Parthi fuerunt (Fam. xii. 19. 2), he kept himself within the 
town as long as the Parthians were in the province. 

556. Dum, while, regularly takes the Present Indicative to de- 
note continued action in past time. 

In translating, the English Imperfect must generally be used : — 
dum haec geruntur, Caesarl nuntiatum est (B. G. i. 46), while this was going 

on, a message was brought to Ccesar. 
haec dum aguntur, interea Cleomenes iam ad Elorl Htus pervenerat (Verr. v. 
91), while this was going on, Cleomenes meanwhile had come down to the 
coast at Elorum. 
hoc dum narrat, forte audivi (Ter. Haut. 272), I happened to hear this while 
she was telling it. 
Note. — This construction is a special use of the Historical Present (§ 469). 

a. A past tense with dum (usually so long as) makes the time em- 
phatic by contrast ; but a few irregular cases of dum with a past tense 
occur where no contrast is intended : 

nee enim dum eram voblscum, animum meum videbatis (Cat. M. 79), for 
while I was with you, you could not see my soul. [Here the time when 
he was alive is contrasted with that after his death.] 
coorta est piigna, par dum constabant ordines (Li v. xxii. 47), a conflict began, 

well matched as long as the ranks stood firm. 
But, — dum oculos hostium certamen averterat (id. xxxii. 24), while the 

struggle kept the eyes of the enemy turned away. 
dum unum adscendere gradum cSnatus est, venit in periculum (Mur. 55), 
while he attempted to climb one step [in rank] he fell into danger. 



§§ 556-558] CLAUSES WITH QUIN AND QUOMINUS 359 

Note. — In later writers, dum sometimes takes the Subjunctive when the classical 
usage would require the Indicative, and d5nec, until, is freely used in this manner 
(especially by Tacitus) : — 

dum ea in Samnio gererentur, in Etruria interim bellum ingens concitur (Liv. x. 
18), while this was being done in Samnium, meanwhile a great war was 
stirred up in Etruria. 
ilia quidem dum te fugeret, hydrum non vidit (Georg. iv. 457), while she was fleeing 

from you she did not see the serpent. 
dum per vicos deportaretur, condormiebat (Suet. Aug. 78), while he was being car- 
ried through the streets he used to fall dead asleep. 
Rhenus servat nomen et violentiam cursus (qua Germaniam praevehitur) donee 
Oceano misceatur (Tac. Ann. ii. 6), the Rhine keeps its name and rapid course 
(where it borders Germany) until it mingles with the ocean. 
temporibusque August! dicendis non defuere decora ingenia donee gliscente adu- 
latione deterrerentur (id. i. 1), for describing the times of Augustus there 
was no lack of talent until it was frightened away by the increasing servility 
of the age. 
For dum, provided that t see § 528. 

Clauses with Quin and Quominus 

557. The original meaning of quin is how not? why not? (qui-ne), and when 
used with the Indicative or (rarely) with the Subjunctive it regularly implies a general 
negative. Thus, quin ego hoc rogem? why shouldn't I ask this? implies that there is 
no reason for not asking. The implied negative was then expressed in a main clause, 
like nulla causa est or fieri non potest. Hence come the various dependent construc- 
tions introduced by quin. 

QuSminus is really a phrase (quo minus) , and the dependent constructions which it 
introduces have their origin in the relative clause of purpose with quo and a com- 
parative (see § 531. a). 

558. A subjunctive clause with quin is used after verbs and 
other expressions of hindering, resisting, refusing, doubting, de- 
laying, and the like, when these are negatived, either expressly or 
by implication : — 

non humana tilla neque divina obstant quin socios amicos trahant exscindant 

(Sail. Ep. Mith. 17), no human or divine laws prevent them from taking 

captive and exterminating their friendly allies. 
ut ne Suessiones quidem deterrere potuerint quin cum his consentirent (B. G. 

ii. 3), that they were unable to hinder even the Suessiones from making 

common cause with them. 
non posse mllites contineri quin in urbem inrumperent (B. C. ii. 12), that the 

soldiers could not be restrained from bursting into the city. 
non rectisat quin iudices (Deiot. 43), he does not object to your judging. 
neque rectisare quin armis contendant (B. G. iv. 7), and that they did not 

refuse to fight. 
praeterire non potui quin scriberem ad te (Caesar ap. Cic. Att. ix. 6 a), I could 

not neglect to write to you. 



360 SYNTAX : DEPENDENT CONSTRUCTIONS [§ 558 

Treverl t5tius hieinis nullum tempus intermlserunt quln legatos mitterent 

(B. G. v. 55), the Treverl let no part of the winter pass without sending 

ambassadors. [Cf. B. G. v. 53; B. C. i. 78.] 
non cunctandum existimavit quin pfigna decertaret (B. G. iii. 23), he thought 

he ought not to delay risking a decisive battle. 
pauluni afuit quin Varum interficeret (B. C. ii. 35), he just missed killing 

Varus (it lacked little but that he should kill), 
neque multum afuit quin castrls expellerentur (id. ii. 35), they came near being 

driven out of the camp. 
facere non possum quin cotidie ad te mittam (Att. xii. 27. 2), I cannot help 

sending to you every day. 
fieri niillo modo poterat quin Cleomeni parceretur (Verr. v. 104), it was out 

of the question that Cleomenes should not be spared. 
ut effici non possit quin eos dderim (Phil. xi. 36), so that nothing can prevent 

my hating them. 

a. Quin is especially common with n5n dubito, I do not doubt, non 
est dubium, there is no doubt, and similar expressions : — 

non dubitabat quin ei crederemus (Att. vi. 2. 3), he did not doubt that we 

believed him. 
illud cave dubites quin ego omnia faciam (Fam. v. 20. 6), do not doubt that 

I will do all. 
quis Ignorat quin tria Graecorum genera sint (Place. 64), who Is ignorant 

that there are three races of Greeks f 
non erat dubium quin Helvetii plurimum possent (cf. B. G. i. 3), there was no 

doubt that the Helvetians were most powerful. 
neque Caesarem fefellit quin ab iis cohortibus milium victoriae oriretur (B. C. 

iii. 94), and it did not escape Caisar^s notice that the beginning of the vie- 

tory came from those cohorts. 
Note 1. — Dubito without a negative is regularly followed by an Indirect Ques- 
tion ; so sometimes non dubito and the like : — 

non nulli dubitant an per Sardiniam veniat (Fam. ix. 7), some doubt whether he 

is coming through Sardinia. 
dubitate, si potestis, a quo sit Sex. Roscius occisus (Rose. Am. 78), doubt, if you 

can, by whom Sextus Roscius was murdered. 
dubitabam tii has ipsas litteras essesne accepturus (Att. xv. 9), I doubt whether 

you will receive this very letter. [Epistolary Imperfect (§ 479).] 
qualis sit futurus, ne vos quidem dubitatis (B. C. ii. 32), and ivhat it (the outcome) 

will be, you yourselves do not doubt. 
non dubito quid sentiant (Fam. xv. 9), I do not doubt what they think. 
dubium illi non erat quid futurum esset (id. viii. 8. 1), it was not doubtful to him 

what was going to happen. 
Note 2. — Non dubito in the sense of I do not hesitate commonly takes the Infini- 
tive, but sometimes quin with the Subjunctive : — 

nee dubitare ilium appellare sapientem (Lael. 1) , and not to hesitate to call him a sage. 
dubitandum non existimavit quin proficisceretur (B. G. ii. 2), he did not think he 

ought to hesitate to set out. 
quid dubitas uti temporis opportunitate (B. C. ii. 34), why do you hesitate to take 

advantage of the favorable moment 9 [A question implying a negative.] 



§§ 558, 559] CLAUSES WITH QUlN AND QUOMINUS 361 

b. Verbs of hindering and refusing often take the subjunctive with 
ne or quominus (= ut eo minus), especially when the verb is not nega- 
tived : — 

plura ne dicam tuae me lacrimae impediunt (Plane. 104), your tears prevent 

me from speaking further. 
nee aetas impedit quominus agri colendi studia tenesmus (Cat. M. 60), nor 

does age prevent us from retaining an interest in tilling the soil. 
nihil impedit quominus id facere possimus (Fin. i. 38), nothing hinders us 

from being able to do that. 
obstitisti ne transire copiae possent (Verr. v. 5), you opposed the passage of 
the troops (opposed lest the troops should cross). 

Note. — Some verbs of hindering may take the Infinitive : — 
nihil obest dicere (Fam. ix. 13. 4), there is nothing to prevent my saying it. 
prohibet accedere (Caec. 46), prevents him from approaching. 

559. A clause of Result or Characteristic may be introduced by 
quin after a general negative, where quin is equivalent to qui (quae, 
quod) non: — 

1. Clauses of Eesult : — 

nemo est tarn fortis quin [= qui non] rel novitate perturbetur (B. G. vi. 39), 
no one is so brave as not to be disturbed by the unexpected occurrence. 

nemo erat adeo tardus quin putaret (B. C. i. 69), no one was so slothful as not 
to think, etc. 

quis est tarn demens quin sentiat (Balb. 43), who is so senseless as not to 
think, etc.? 

nil tarn difficilest quin quaerendo investigari possiet (Ter. Haut. 675), noth- 
ing 's so hard but search will find it out (Herrick). 

2. Clauses of Characteristic : — 

nemo nostrum est quin [ = qui non] sciat (Rose. Am. 55), there is no one of 

us who does not know. 
nemo fuit mllitum quin vulneraretur (B. C. iii. 53), there was not one of the 

soldiers vjho was not wounded. 
ecquis fuit quin iacrimaret (Verr. v. 121), was there any one who did not shed 

tears f 
quis est quin intellegat (Fin. v. 64), who is there who does not understand f 
horum nihil est quin [ = quod non] intereat (N. D. iii. 30), there is none of 

these (elements) which does not perish. 
nihil est illorum quin [ = quod non] ego illi dixerim (PI. Bac. 1012), there is 

nothing of this that I have not told him. 

Note. — 9 u * n sometimes introduces a pure clause of result with the sense of ut non : 
as, — numquam tain male est Siculis quin aliquid facete et commode dicant (Verr. iv. 
95), things are never so bad with the Sicilians but that they have something pleasant 
or witty to say. 

For quin in independent constructions, see § 449. b. 



362 SYNTAX : SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES [§§ 560-563 



SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES 

560. A clause which is used as a noun may be called a Substantive Clause, as 
certain relative clauses are sometimes called adjective clauses. But in practice the 
term is restricted to clauses which represent a nominative or an accusative case, the 
clauses which stand for an ablative being sometimes called adverbial clauses. 

Even with this limitation the term is not quite precise (see p. 367, footnote 1). The 
fact is rather that the clause and the leading verb are mutually complementary ; each 
reinforces the other. The simplest and probably the earliest form of such sentences 
is to be found in the paratactic use (see § 268) of two verbs like void abeas, dicamus 
censeS, adeam optimum est. From such verbs the usage spread by analogy to other 
verbs (see lists on pp. 363, 367, footnotes), and the complementary relation of the 
clause to the verb came to resemble the complementary force of the accusative, espe- 
cially the accusative of cognate meaning (§ 390) . 

561. A clause used as a noun is called a Substantive Clause. 
d» A Substantive Clause may be used as the Subject or Object of 

a verb, as an Appositive, or as a Predicate Nominative or Accusative. 

Note 1. — Many ideas which in English take the form of an abstract noun may be 
rendered by a substantive clause in Latin. Thus, he demanded an investigation may 
be postulabat ut quaestiS haberetur. The common English expression for with the 
infinitive also corresponds to a Latin substantive clause : as, — it remains for me to 
speak of the piratic war, reliquum est ut de bello dicam piraticS. 

Note 2. — When a Substantive Clause is used as subject, the verb to which it is 
subject is called impersonal, and the sign of the construction in English is commonly 
the so-called expletive it. 

562. Substantive Clauses are classified as follows : — 

1. Subjunctive Clauses f a. Of purpose (command, wish, fear) (§§ 563, 564). 

(ut, ne,utnon, etc.). \ b. Of result (happen, effect, etc.) (§568). 

2. Indicative Clauses with quod : Fact, Specification, Feeling (§ 572). 

3. Indirect Questions: Subjunctive, introduced by an Interrogative Word 

(§§ 573-576). 

4. Infinitive Clauses { * ™ ver * s of order ™^ ™ ish ™9, etc. (§ 563). 

\ b. Indirect Discourse (§579 ff.). 

Note. — The Infinitive with Subject Accusative is not strictly a clause, but in Latin 
it has undergone so extensive a development that it may be so classed. The uses of 
the Infinitive Clause are of two kinds : (1) in constructions in which it replaces a sub- 
junctive clause with ut etc. ; (2) in the Indirect Discourse. The first class will be dis- 
cussed in connection with the appropriate subjunctive constructions (§563) ; for Indirect 
Discourse, see § 579 ff. 

Substantive Clauses of Purpose 

563. Substantive Clauses of Purpose with ut (negative ne) are 
used as the object of verbs denoting an action directed toward the 
future. 



§563] SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES OF PURPOSE 363 

Such are, verbs meaning to admonish, ask, bargain, command, de- 
cree, determine, permit, persuade, resolve, urge, and wish : — * 

monet ut o nines susplciones vitet (B. G. i. 20), he warns him to avoid all 

suspicion. 
hortatur eos ne animo deficiant (B. C. i. 19), he urges them not to lose heart. 
te rogo atque oro ut eum iuves (Fam. xiii. 66), I beg and pray you to aid him. 
his uti conquirerent imperavit (B. G. i. 28), he ordered them to search. 
persuadet Castico ut regnuin occuparet (id. i. 3), he persuades Casticus to 

usurp royal power. 
suis imperavit ne quod omnino telum reicerent (id. i. 46), he ordered his men 

not to throw back any weapon at all. 

Note. — With any verb of these classes the poets may use the Infinitive instead of 
an object clause : — 

hortamur fan (Aen. ii. 74), we urge [him] to speak. 

ne quaere doceri (id. vi. 614), seek not to be told. 

temptat praevertere (id. i. 721), she attempts to turn, etc. 
For the Subjunctive without ut with verbs of commanding, see § 565. a. 

a. Iubeo, order, and veto, forbid, take the Infinitive with Subject 
Accusative : — 

Labienum iugum montis ascendere iubet (B. G. i. 21), he orders Labienus to 

ascend the ridge of the hill. 
Kberos ad se adduci iussit (id. ii. 5), he ordered the children to be brought to him. 
ab opere legatSs discedere vetuerat (id. ii. 20), he had forbidden the lieutenants 

to leave the work. 
vetuere [bona] reddi (Liv. ii. 5), they forbade the return of the goods (that the 

goods be returned). 

Note. — Some other verbs of commanding etc. occasionally take the Infinitive: — 
pontem imperant fieri (B. C. i. 61), they order a bridge to be built. 
res monet cavere (Sail. Cat. 52. 3), the occasion ivarns us to be on our guard. 

b. Verbs of wishing take either the Infinitive or the Subjunctive. 
With volo (nolo, malo) and cupio the Infinitive is commoner, and 

the subject of the infinitive is rarely expressed when it would be the 
same as that of the main verb. 

With other verbs of wishing the Subjunctive is commoner when 
the subject changes, the Infinitive when it remains the same. 
1. Subject of dependent verb same as that of the verb of wishing : — 
augur fieri volui (Fam. xv. 4. 13), I wished to be made augur. 
cupio vigiliam meam tibi tradere (id. xi. 24), I am eager to hand over my watch 
to you. 

1 Such verbs or verbal phrases are id ago, ad id venio, caveo (ne), censed, cogo, con- 
cedo, c5nstitu5, euro, decerns, edicd, flagito, hortor, impero, insto, mandd, metuS (ne), 
moneo, negotium do, operam do, oro, persuaded, pet5, postulo, praecipio, precor, proniintio, 
quaero, rogo, scisco, timeo (ne), vereor (ne), video, void. 



364 SYNTAX : SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES [§ 563 

iudicem me esse, non doctorem volo (Or. 117), I wish to be a judge, not a 

teacher. 
me Caesaris mllitem dici volul (B. C. ii. 32. 13), I wished to be called a soldier 

of Ccesar. 
cupio me esse cleinentem (Cat. i. 4), I desire to be merciful. [But regularly, 

cupio esse clemens (see § 457).] 
omnls homines, qui sese student praestare ceteris animalibus (Sail. Cat. 1), 

all men who wish to excel other living creatures. 

2. Subject of dependent verb different from that of the verb of wishing : 
volo te scire (Fam. ix. 24. 1), J wish you to know. 
vim volumus exstingui (Sest. 92), we wish violence to be put down. 
te tua frui virtute cupimus (Brut. 331), we wish you to reap the fruits of your 

virtue. 
cupio ut impetret (PL Capt. 102), I wish he may get it. 
Qumquam optabo ut audiatis (Cat. ii. 15), I will never desire that you shall 

hear. 

For volo and its compounds with the Subjunctive without ut, see § 565. 

Cm Verbs of permitting take either the Subjunctive or the Infini- 
tive. Patior takes regularly the Infinitive with Subject Accusative ; 
so often sino : — 

permisit ut faceret (De Or. ii. 366), permitted him to make. 

concedo tibi ut ea praetereas (Rose. Am. 54), 1 allow you to pass by these 

matters. 
tabernacula statu! passus non est (B. C. i. 81), he did not allow tents to be 

pitched. 
vinum importari non sinunt (B. G. iv. 2), they do not allow wine to be imported. 

d. Verbs of determining, decreeing, resolving, bargaining, take 
either the Subjunctive or the Infinitive : — 

constituerant ut L. Bestia quereretur (Sail. Cat. 43), they had determined that 

Lucius Bestia should complain. 
proelio supersedere statuit (B. G. ii. 8), he determined to refuse battle. 
de bonis regis quae reddi censuerant (Liv. ii. 5), about the king's goods, which 

they had decreed should be restored. 
decernit uti consules dilectum habeant (Sail. Cat. 34), decrees that the consuls 

shall hold a levy. 
edicto ne quis iniussu pugnaret (Liv. v. 19), having commanded that none 

should fight without orders. 

Note 1. — Different verbs of these classes with the same meaning vary in their 
construction (see the Lexicon). For verbs of bargaining etc. with the Gerundive, see 
§ 500. 4. 

Note 2. — Verbs of decreeing and voting often take the Infinitive of the Second 
Periphrastic conjugation: — Regulus captivds reddendos [esse] non censuit (Off. i. 39), 
Regulus voted that the captives should not be returned. [He said, in giving his formal 
opinion: captivl non reddendi sunt,] 



§§ 563-565] SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES OF PURPOSE 365 

e. Verbs of caution and effort take the Subj unctive with ut. But 
conor, try, commonly takes the Complementary Infinitive : — 

cura, ut quam prlinuin intellegam (Earn. xiii. 10. 4), let me know as soon as pos- 
sible (take care that I may understand), 
dant operam ut habeant (Sail. Cat. 41), they take pains to have (give their 

attention that, etc.). 
impellere uti Caesar ndminaretur (id. 49), to induce them to name Ccesar (that 

Caesar should be named), 
conatus est Caesar reficere pontis (B. C. i. 50), Ccesar tried to rebuild the bridges. 

Note 1. — Conor si also occurs (as B. G. i. 8) ; cf. miror si etc., § 572. b. n. 
Note 2. — Ut ne occurs occasionally with verbs of caution and effort (cf. §531): — 
cura et provide ut nequid el desit (Att. xi. 3. 3), take care and see that he lacks nothing. 
For the Subjunctive with quin and quominus with verbs of hindering etc., see § 558. 

564. Verbs of fearing take the Subjunctive, with ne affirma- 
tive and ne non or ut negative. 

In this use ne is commonly to be translated by that, ut and ne non 
by that not : — 

timeo ne Verres fecerit (Verr. v. 3), I fear that Verres has done, etc. 

ne animum offenderet verebatur (B. G. i. 19), he feared that he should hurt 
the feelings, etc. 

ne exheredaretur veritus est (Rose. Am. 58), he feared that he should be dis- 
inherited. 

Orator metuo ne languescat senectiite (Cat. M. 28), I fear the orator grows 
feeble from old age. 

vereor ut tibi possim concedere (De Or. i. 35), I fear that I cannot grant you. 

haud sane perlculum est nenSn mortem optandam putet (Tusc. v. 118), there 
is no danger that he will not think death desirable. 

Note. — The subjunctive in ne-clauses after a verb of fearing is optative in origin. 
To an independent ne-sentenee, as ne accidat, may it not happen, a verb may be prefixed 
(ef . § 560) , making a complex sentence. Thus, vide ne accidat ; 5ro ne" accidat ; cavet ne 
accidat ; when the prefixed verb is one of fearing, timeo ne accidat becomes let it not hap- 
pen, but I fear that it may. The origin of the ut-clause is similar. 

565. Volo and its compounds, the impersonate licet and oportet, 
and the imperatives die and fac often take the Subjunctive with- 
out ut : — 

volo ames (Att. ii. 10), I wish you to love. 

quam vellem me invitasses (Fam. x. 28. 1), how I wish you had invited me! 

mallem Cerberum metueres (Tusc. i. 12), J had rather you feared Cerberus. 

sint enim oportet (id. i. 12), for they must exist. 

queramur licet (Caec. 41), we are allowed to complain. 

fac diligas (Att. iii. 13. 2), do love ! [A periphrasis for the imperative dilige, 

love (cf. §449. c).] 
die exeat, tell him to go out. 



366 SYNTAX : SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES [§§ 565, 566 

Note 1. — In such cases there is no ellipsis of ut. The expressions are idiomatic 
remnants of an older construction in which the subjunctives were hortatory or optative 
and thus really independent of the verb of wishing etc. In the classical period, how- 
ever, they were doubtless felt as subordinate. Compare the use of cave and the sub- 
junctive (without ne) in Prohibitions (§ 450) , which appears to follow the analogy of fac, 

Note 2. — Licet may take (1) the Subjunctive, usually without ut; (2) the simple 
Infinitive; (3) the Infinitive with Subject Accusative; (4; the Dative and the Infini- 
tive (see § 455. 1). Thus, I may go is licet earn, licet ire, licet me ire, or licet mini ire. 

For licet in concessive clauses, see § 527. b. 

Note 3. — Oportet may take (1) the Subjunctive without ut; (2) the simple Infini- 
tive ; (3) the Infinitive with Subject Accusative. Thus / must go is oportet earn, oportet 
ire, or oportet me Ire. 

a. Verbs of commanding and the like often take the subjunctive 
without ut : — 

huic mandat Remos adeat (B. G. iii. 11), he orders him to visit the Remi. 
rogat flnem faciat (id. i. 20), he asks him to cease. 

Mnesthea vocat, classem aptent socil (Aen. iv. 289), he calls Mnestheus [and 
orders that] his comrades shall make ready the fleet. 

Note. — The subjunctive in this construction is the hortatory subjunctive used to 
express a command in Indirect Discourse (§ 588) . 



Substantive Clauses of Purpose with Passive Verbs 

566. A Substantive Clause used as the object of a verb becomes 
the subject when the verb is put in the passive (Impersonal Con- 
struction) : — 

Caesar ut c5gn5sceret postulatum est (B. C. i. 87), Ccesar was requested to 

make an investigation (it was requested that Caesar should make an 

investigation), 
si erat Heraclio ab senatii mandatum ut emeret (Verr. iii. 88), if Heraclius 

had been instructed by the senate to buy. 
si persuasum erat Cluvio ut mentiretur (Rose. Com. 51), if Cluvius had been 

persuaded to lie. 
puto concedi nobis oportere ut Graeco verbo utamur (Fin. iii. 15), J think 

we must be allowed to use a Greek word. 
ne quid els noceatur a Caesare cavetur (B. C. i. 86), Coesar takes care that no 

harm shall be done them (care is taken by Caesar lest, etc.). 

a. With verbs of admonishing, the personal object becomes the 
subject and the object clause is retained : — 

admonitl sumus ut caveremus (Att. viii. 11 d. 3), we were warned to be careful. 
cum moneretur ut cautior esset (Div. i. 51), when he was advised to be more 

cautious. 
moneri vlsus est ne id faceret (id. 56), he seemed to be warned not to do it 



§§566-568] SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES OE EESULT 367 

b. Some verbs that take an infinitive instead of a subjunctive 
are used impersonally in the passive, and the infinitive becomes the 
subj ect of the sentence : — 

loqui non conceditur (B. G. vi. 20), it is not allowed to speak. 

c. With iubeo, veto, and cogo, the subject accusative of the infinitive 
becomes the subject nominative of the main verb, and the infinitive is 
retained as complementary (Personal Construction) : — 

adesse rabentur postrldie (Yerr. ii. 41), they are ordered to be present on the 

following day. 
ire in exsilium iussus est (Cat. ii. 12), he was ordered to go into exile. 
Simonides vetitus est navigare (Div. ii. 134), Simonides was forbidden to sail. 
Mandubil exire coguntur (B. G. vii. 78), the Mandubii are compelled to go out. 

Substantive Clauses of Result (Consecutive Clauses) 

567. Clauses of Result may be used substantively, (1) as the object of facio etc. 
(§ 568); (2) as the subject of these same verbs in the passive, as well as of other verbs 
and verbal phrases (§ 569) ; (3) in apposition with another substantive, or as predicate 
nominative etc. (see §§ 570, 571) - 1 

568. Substantive Clauses of Result with ut (negative ut non) 
are used as the object of verbs denoting the accomplishment of 
an effort 2 

Such are especially facio and its compounds (efficio, conficio, etc.) : — 
efficiam ut intellegatis (Clu. 7), I will make you understand (lit. effect that 

you, etc.). [So, faciam ut intellegatis (id. 9).] 
commeattis ut portarl possent efficiebat (B. G. ii. 5), made it possible that 

supplies could be brought. 
perfecl ut e regno ille discederet (Fam. xv. 4. 6), I brought about his departure 

from the kingdom. 
quae Hbertas ut laetior esset regis superbia fecerat (Liv. ii. 1), the arrogance 

of the king had made this liberty more welcome. 
evincunt instando ut litterae darentur (id. ii. 4), by insisting they gain their 

point, — that letters should be sent. [Here evincunt = efficiunt.] 

1 In all these cases the clause is not strictly subject or object. The main verb orig- 
inally conveyed a meaning sufficient in itself, and the result clause was merely com- 
plementary. This is seen by the frequent use of ita and the like with the main verb 
(ita accidit ut, etc.). In like manner purpose clauses are only apparently subject or 
object of the verb with which they are connected. 

2 Verbs and phrases taking an ut-clause of result as subject or object are accedit, 
accidit, additur, altera est res, committo, consequor, contingit, efficio, evenit, facio, fit, fieri 
potest, fore, impetro, integrum est, mos est, munus est, necesse est, prope est, rectum est. 
relinquitur, reliquum est, restat, tanti est, tantum abest, and a few others 



368 SYNtAX: SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES [§§568-571 

Note 1. —The expressions facere ut, committere ut, with the subjunctive, often form 
a periphrasis for the simple verb: as, — invitus feci ut Flaminium e senatu eicerem 
'Cat. M. 42), it vxis vrith reluctance that I expelled Flaminius from the senate. 

569. Substantive Clauses of Result are used as the subject of 
the following : — 

1. Of passive verbs denoting the accomplishment of an effort : — 

inipetratum est ut in senatu recitarentur (litterae) (B. C. i. 1), they succeeded 
in having the letter read in the senate (it was brought about that, etc.). 

ita efficitur ut omne corpus mortale sit (N. D. iii. 30), it therefore is made 
out that every body is mortal 

2. Of Impersonals meaning it happens, it remains, it follows, it is 
necessary, it is added, and the like (§ 568, footnote) : — 

accidit ut esset lima plena (B. G. iv. 29), it happened to be full moon (it hap- 
pened that it was, etc.). [Here ut esset is subject of accidit.] 

reliquum est ut officils certemus inter nos (Fam. vii. 31), it remains for us to 
vie with each other in courtesies. 

restat ut hoc dubitemus (Rose. Am. 88), it is left for us to doubt this. 

sequitur ut doceam (N. D. ii. 81), the next thing is to show (it follows, etc.). 

Note 1. — The infinitive sometimes occurs: as, — nee enim acciderat mihi opus 
esse (Fam. vi. 11. l),/or it had not happened to be necessary to vie. 

Note 2. — Necesse est often takes the subjunctive without ut : as, — concedas necesse 
est (Rose. Am. 87), you must grant. 

3. Of est in the sense of it is the fact that, etc. (mostly poetic) : — 

est ut viro vir latius ordinet arbusta (Hor. Od. iii. 1. 9), it is the fact that one 
man plants his vineyards in wider rovis than another. 

a. Fore (or futurum esse) ut with a clause of result as subject is 
often used instead of the Future Infinitive active or passive ; so 
necessarily in verbs which have no supine stem : — 

spero fore ut contingat id nobis (Tusc. i. 82), I hope that will be our happy lot. 
cum viderem fore ut non possem (Cat. ii. 4), when I saw that I should not be able. 

570. A substantive clause of result may be in apposition with 

another substantive (especially a neuter pronoun): — 

illud etiam restiterat, ut te in ius educerent (Quinct. 33), this too remained — 
for them to drag you into court. 

571. A substantive clause of result may serve as predicate 

nominative after mos est and similar expressions : — 

est mos hominum, ut nolint eundem pluribus rebus excellere (Brut. 84), it is 
the way of men to be unwilling for one man to excel in several things. 



§§ 571, 572] INDICATIVE WITH QUOD 369 

a. A result clause, with or without ut ; frequently follows quam 
after a comparative (but see § 583. c) : — 

Canachi signa rigidiora sunt quam ut imitentur veritatem (Brut. 70), the statues 
of Canachus are too stiff to represent nature (stiff er than that they should). 

perpessus est omnia potius quam indicaret (Tusc. ii. 52), he endured all rather 
than betray, etc. [Regularly without ut except in Livy.] 

b. The phrase tantum abest, it is so far [from being the case], 
regularly takes two clauses of result with ut: one is substantive, the 
subject of abest ; the other is adverbial, correlative with tantum: — 

tantum abest ut nostra miremur, ut usque eo difficiles ac morosi simus, ut 
nobis non satis faciat ipse Demosthenes (Or. 104), so far from admiring 
my own works, I am difficult and captious to that degree that not Demos- 
thenes himself satisfies me. [Here the first ut-clause is the subject of 
abest (§ 569. 2); the second, a result clause after tantum (§ 537); and 
the third, after usque eo.] 

c. Rarely, a thought or an idea is considered as a result, and is 
expressed by the subjunctive with ut instead of the accusative and 
infinitive (§ 580). In this case a demonstrative usually precedes : 

praeelarum illud est, ut eos . . . amemus (Tusc. iii. IS), this is a noble thing, 

that we should love, etc. 
veri simile non est ut ille antepSneret (Verr. iv. 11), it is not likely that he 
preferred. 
For Relative Clauses with quin after verbs of hindering etc., see § 558. 

Indicative with Quod 

572. A peculiar form of Substantive Clause consists of quod 
(in the sense of that, the fact that) with the Indicative. 

The clause in the Indicative with quod is used when the state- 
ment is regarded as a fact : — 

alteram est vitium, quod quidam nimis magnum studium conferunt (Off. i. 19), 
it is another fault that some bestow too much zeal, etc. [Here ut conferant 
could be used, meaning that some should bestow ; or the accusative and 
infinitive, meaning to bestow (abstractly); quod makes it a fact that men 
do bestow, etc.] 
inter inanimum et animal hoc maxime interest, quod animal agit aliquid 
(Acad. ii. 37), this is the chief difference between an inanimate object and 
an animal, that an animal aims at something. 
quodTrediit nobis mirabile videtur (Off. iii. Ill), that he (Regulus) returned 

seems wonderful to us. 
accidit perincommode quod eum nusquam vidisti (Att. i. 17. 2)., it happened 
very unluckily that you nowhere saw him. 



370 SYNTAX: SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES [§§572,573 

opportiinissima res accidit quod German! venerunt (B. G. iv. 13), a very for- 
tunate thing happened, (namely) that the Germans came. 

praetereo quod earn sibi domum sedemque delegit (Clu. 188), I pass over the 
fact that she chose that house and home for herself. 

mitto quod possessa per vim (Flacc. 79), I disregard the fact that they were 
seized by violence. 

Note. — Like other substantive clauses, the clause with quod may be used as sub- 
ject, as object, as appositive, etc., but it is commonly either the subject or in apposi- 
tion with the subject. 

a. A substantive clause with quod sometimes appears as an accu- 
sative of specification, corresponding to the English whereas or as 
to the fact that : — 

quod mihi de nostro statu gratularis, minime miramur te tills praeclaris operi- 
bus laetarl (Fam. i. 7. 7), as to your congratulating me on our condition, 
we are not at all surprised that you are pleased with your own noble works. 

quod de domo scribis, ego, etc. (Fam. xiv. 2. 3), as to what you write of the 
house, I, etc. 

b. Verbs of feeling and the expression of feeling take either quod 
(quia) or the accusative and infinitive (Indirect Discourse) : — 

quod scribis . . . gaudeo (Q. Fr. iii. 1. 9), J am glad that you write. 

facio libenter quod earn non possum praeterire (Legg. i. 63), I am glad that I 

cannot pass it by. 
quae perfecta esse vehementer laetor (Rose. Am. 136), I greatly rejoice that 

this is finished. 
qui quia non habuit a me turmas equitum fortasse suscenset (Att. vi. 3. 5), who 

perhaps feels angry that he did not receive squadrons of cavalry from me. 
moleste tull te senatui gratias non egisse (Fam. x. 27. 1), I was displeased 

that you did not return thanks to the senate. 

Note. — Miror and similar expressions are sometimes followed by a clause with si. 1 
This is apparently substantive, but really protasis (cf. §563. e. n. 1 ). Thus, — miror 
si quemquam amicum habere potuit (Lael.54), I wonder if he could ever have a friend. 
[Originally, If this is so, I wonder at it.] 

Indirect Questions 

573. An Indirect Question is any sentence or clause which is 
introduced by an interrogative word (pronoun, adverb, etc.), and 
which is itself the subject or object of a verb, or depends on any 
expression implying uncertainty or doubt. 

In grammatical form, exclamatory sentences are not distin- 
guished from interrogative (see the third example below). 

i Cf . the Greek Bav^u) el 



§§ 574, 575] INDIRECT QUESTIONS 371 

574. An Indirect Question takes its verb in the Subjunctive : 

quid ipse sentiam exponam (Div. i. 10), I will explain what I think. [Direct: 
quid sentiS ?] 

id possetne fieri consuluit (id. i. 32), he consulted whether it could be done. 
[Direct: potestne?] 

quam sis audax oranes intellegere potuerunt (Rose. Am. 87), all could under- 
stand how bold you are. [Direct : quam es audax !] 

doleam necne doleam nihil interest (Tusc. ii. 29), it is of no account whether I 
suffer or not. [Double question.] 

quaesivi a Catillna in conventu apud M. Laecam fuisset necne (Cat. ii. 13), I 
asked Catiline whether he had been at the meeting at Marcus Lceca's or 
not. [Double question.] 

rogat me quid sentiam, he asks me what I think. [Cf. rogat me sententiam, he 
asks me my opinion.'] 

hoc dubium est, uter nostrum sit inverecundior (Acad. ii. 126), this is doubt- 
ful, which of us two is the less modest. 

incerti quatenus Yolero exerceret victoriam (Liv. ii. 55), uncertain how far 
1 Volero would push victory. [As if dubitantes quatenus, etc.] 

Note. — An Indirect Question may be the subject of a verb (as in the fourth exam- 
ple), the direct object (as in the first), the secondary object (as in the sixth), an apposi- 
tive (as in the seventh) . 

575. The Sequence of Tenses in Indirect Question is illus- 
trated by the following examples : — 

dico quid faciam, I tell you what I am doing. 

died quid facturus sim, I tell you what I will (shall) do. 

dic5 quid fecerim, I tell you what I did (have done, was doing). 

dixi quid facerem, I told you what I was doing. 

dixi quid fecissem, I told you what I had done (had been doing). 

dixi quid facturus essem, I told you what I would (should) do (was going to do). 

dixi quid facturus fuissem, I told you what I would (should) have done. 

a. Indirect Questions referring to future time take the subjunc- 
tive of the First Periphrastic Conjugation : — 

prospicio qui concur sus futuri sint (Caecil. 42), I foresee what throngs there 

will be. [Direct : qui erunt ?] 
quid sit futurum eras, fuge quaerere (Hor. Od. i. 9. 13), forbear to ask what will 

be on the morrow. [Direct : quid erit or futurum est ?] 
posthac non scribam ad te quid facturus sim, sed quid fecerim (Att. x. 18), 

hereafter I shall not write to you what I am going to do, but what I have 

done. [Direct : quid fades (or facturus eris) ? quid fecisti ?] 

Note. — This Periphrastic Future avoids the ambiguity which would be caused by 
using the Present Subjunctive to refer to future time in such clauses. 

b. The Deliberative Subjunctive (§ 444) remains unchanged in an 
Indirect Question, except sometimes in tense : — 



372 SYNTAX: SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES [§§575,576 

quo me" vertam nescio (Clu. 4), I do not know which way to turn. [Direct: 

qu5 me vertam ?] 
neque satis constabat quid agerent (B. G. iii. 14), and it was not very clear what 

they were to do. [Direct : quid agamus ?] 
nee quisquam satis certum habet, quid aut speret aut timeat (Liv. xxii. 7. 10), 

nor is any one well assured what he shall hope or fear. [Here the future 

participle with sit could not be used.] 
incertO quid peterent aut vitarent (id. xxviii. 36. 12), since it was doubtful 

(ablative absolute) what they should seek or shun. 

c. Indirect Questions often take the Indicative in early Latin and 
in poetry : — 

vlneam qu5 in agro conseri oportet sic observato (Cato K. R. 6. 4), in ivhat 
soil a vineyard should be set you must observe thus. 

d. Nescio quis, when used in an indefinite sense (somebody or other), 
is not followed by the Subjunctive. 

So also nescio quo (unde, etc.), and the following idiomatic phrases 
which are practically adverbs : — 

mirum (nimirum) quam, marvellously (marvellous how). 
mirum quantum, tremendously (marvellous how much), 
immane quantum, monstrously (monstrous how much), 
sane quam, immensely. 
valde" quam, enormously. 

Examples are : — 

qui istam nescio quam indolentiam magnopere laudant (Tusc. iii. 12), who 

greatly extol that freedom from pain, whatever it is. 
mirum quantum prOfuit (Liv. ii. 1), it helped prodigiously \ 
ita fat5 nesciS quo contigisse arbitror (Fam. xv. 13), I think it happened so 

by some fatality or other. 
nam suos valde quam paucos habet (id. xi. 13 a. 3), for he has uncommonly 

few of his own. 
sane quam sum gavisus (id. xi. 13 a. 4), I was immensely glad. 
immane quantum discrepat (Hor. Od. i. 27. 5), is monstrously at variance. 

576. In colloquial usage and in poetry the subject of an In- 
direct Question is often attracted into the main clause as object 

(Accusative of Anticipation) : — 

nosti Marcellum quam tardus sit (Fam. viii. 10. 3), you know how slow Mar- 
cellus is. [For nosti quam tardus sit Marcellus. Cf. "I know thee who 
thou art."] 

<?A . potestne igitur earum rerum, qua re futurae suit, villa esse praesensio (Div. 
ii. 15), can there be, then, any foreknowledge as to those things, why they 
will occur f [A similar use of the Objective Genitive.] 



§§ 576, 577] INDIRECT DISCOURSE 373 

Note. — In some cases the Object of Anticipation becomes the Subject by a change 
of voice, and an apparent mixture of relative and interrogative constructions is the 
result : — 

quidam saepe in parva pecunia perspiciuntur quam sint leves (Lael. 63), it is often 
seen, in a trifling matter of money, how unprincipled some people are (some 
l>eople are often seen through, how unprincipled they are), 
quern ad modum Pompeium oi>piignarent a me indicati sunt (Leg. Agr. i.5)» if has 
been shown by me in what way they attacked Pompey (they have been shown 
by me, how they attacked). 

a. An indirect question is occasionally introduced by si in the 
sense of whether (like if in English, cf. § 572. b. n.): — 

circumfunduntur hostes si quern aditum reperlre possent (B. G. vi. 37), the 

enemy pour round [to see] if they can find entrance. 
visam si doml est (Ter. Haut. 170), I will go see if he is at home. 

Note. — This is strictly a Protasis, but usually no Apodosis is thought of, and the 
clause is virtually an Indirect Question. 

For the Potential Subjunctive with forsitan (originally an Indirect Question), see 
§ 447. a. 

INDIRECT DISCOURSE 

577. The use of the Accusative and Infinitive in Indirect Discourse (oratio obliq no) 
is a comparatively late form of speech, developed in the Latin and Greek only, and 
perhaps separately in each of them. It is wholly wanting in Sanskrit, but some forms 
like it have grown up in English and German. 

The essential character of Indirect Discourse is, that the language of some other 
person than the writer or speaker is compressed into a kind of Substantive Clause, the 
verb of the main clause becoming Infinitive, while modifying clauses, as well as all 
hortatory forms of speech, take the Subjunctive. The person of the verb necessarily 
conforms to the new relation of persons. 

The construction of Indirect Discourse, however, is not limited to reports of the 
language of some person other than the speaker; it may be used to express what any 
one — whether the speaker or some one else — says, thinks, or perceives, whenever that 
which is said, thought, ox perceived is capable of being expressed in the form of a com- 
plete sentence. For anything that can be said etc. can also be reported indirectly as 
well as directly. 

The use of the Infinitive in the main clause undoubtedly comes from its use as a 
case-form to complete or modify the action expressed by the verb of saying and its 
object together. This object in time came to be regarded as, and in fact to all intents 
became, the subject of the infinitive. A transition state is found in Sanskrit, which, 
though it has no indirect discourse proper, yet allows an indirect predication after verbs 
of saying and the like by means of a predicative apposition, in such expressions as 
" The maids told the king [that] his daughter [was] bereft of her senses.' , 

The simple form of indirect statement with the accusative and infinitive was after- 
wards amplified by introducing dependent or modifying clauses ; and in Latin it became 
a common construction, and could be used to report whole speeches etc., which in other 
languages would have the direct form. (Compare the style of reporting speeches in 
English, where only the person and tense are changed.) 

The Subjunctive in the subordinate clauses of Indirect Discourse has no significance 
except to make more distinct the fact that these clauses are subordinate ; consequently 
no direct connection has been traced between them and the uses of the mood in simple 



374 SYNTAX: SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES [§§577-580 

sentences. It is probable that the subjunctive in indirect questions (§ 574) , in informal 
indirect discourse (§ 592) , and in clauses of the integral part (§ 593) represents the 
earliest steps of a movement by which the subjunctive became in some degree a mood 
of subordination. 

The Subjunctive standing for hortatory forms of speech in Indirect Discourse is 
simply the usual hortatory subjunctive, with only a change of person and tense (if 
necessary), as in the reporter's style. 

578. A Direct Quotation gives the exact words of the original 
speaker or writer (Ordtio Be eta). 

An Indirect Quotation adapts the words of the speaker or 
writer to the construction of the sentence in which they are 
quoted (Ordtio Obllqua). 

Note. — The term Indirect Discourse (ordtio obllqua) is used in two senses. In 
the wider sense it includes all clauses — of whatever kind — which express the words 
or thought of any person indirectly, that is, in a form different from that in which the 
person said the words or conceived the thought. In the narrower sense the term Indi- 
rect Discourse is restricted to those cases in which some complete proposition is cited 
in the form of an Indirect Quotation, which may be extended to a narrative or an 
address of any length, as in the speeches reported by Caesar and Livy. In this book 
the term is used in the restricted sense. 



Formal Indirect Discourse 

579. Verbs and other expressions of knowing, thinking, telli7ig, 
and perceiving, 1 govern the Indirect Discourse. 

Note. — Inquam, said I (etc.) takes the Direct Discourse except in poetry. 

Declaratory Sentences in Indirect Discourse 

580. In Indirect Discourse the main clause of a Declaratory- 
Sentence is put in the Infinitive with Subject Accusative. All 
subordinate clauses take the Subjunctive : — 

scio me paene incredibilem rem polliceri (B. C. iii. 86), I know that I am 
promising an almost incredible thing. [Direct : polliceor.] 

non arbitror te ita sentire (Fam. x. 26. 2), I do not suppose that you feel 
thus. [Direct: sentis.] 

spero me liberatum [esse] de nietti (Tusc. ii. 67), I trust I have been freed 
from fear. [Direct : liberatus sum. ] 

1 Such are : (1) knowing, scio, cognosco, compertum habeo, etc. ; (2) thinking, puto, 
existimo, arbitror, etc. ; (3) telling, dico, nuntio, refero, polliceor, promitto, certiorem facio, 
etc. ; (4) perceiving, sentio, comperiS, video, audi5, etc. So in general any word that 
denotes thought or mental and visual perception or their expression may govern the 
Indirect Discourse. 



§580] INDIBECT DISCOURSE 375 

[dicit] esse non nullos quorum auctoritas plurimum valeat (B. G. i. 17), he 

says there are some, whose influence most prevails. [Direct : sunt non 

nulli . . . valet.] 
nisi iurasset, scelus se facturum [esse] arbitrabatur (Verr. ii. 1. 123), he 

thought he should incur guilt, unless he should take the oath. [Direct : 

nisi iuraver5, faciam.] 

a. The verb of saying etc. is often not expressed, but implied in 
some word or in the general drift of the sentence : — 

consulis alterliis nomen invlsum dvitati fuit : nimium Tarquinios regno 
adsuesse; initium a Prisco factum; regnasse dein Ser. Tullium, etc. 
(Liv. ii. 2), the name of the other consul was hateful to the state; the Tar- 
quins (they thought) had become too much accustomed to royal power, etc. 
[Here invlsum implies a thought, and this thought is added in the 
form of Indirect Discourse.] 

orantes ut urbibus saltern — iam enim agros deploratos esse — opem senatus 
ferret (id. xli. 6), praying that the senate would at least bring aid to the 
cities — for the fields [they said] were already given up as lost. 

b. The verb nego, deny, is commonly used in preference to dico with 
a negative : — 

[StoicI] negant quidquam [esse] bonum nisi quod honestum sit (Pin. ii. 68), 
the Stoics assert that nothing is good but what is right. 

c. Verbs of promising, hoping, expecting, threatening, swearing, 
and the like, regularly take the construction of Indirect Discourse, 
contrary to the English idiom : — 

minatur sese abire (PL Asin. 604), he threatens to go away. [Direct: abeo, 

I am going away. ] 
sperant se maximum fructum esse capturos (Lael. 79), they hope to gain the 

utmost advantage. [Direct: capiemus.] 
sperat se absolutum iri (Sull. 21), he hopes that he shall be acquitted. [Direct : 

absolvar. ] 
quern inimlcissimum futurum esse promitto ac spondeo (Mur. 90), who I 

promise and warrant will be the bitterest of enemies. [Direct: erit.] 
dolor fortitudinem se debilitaturum minatur (Tusc. v. 76), pain threatens to 

wear down fortitude. [Direct: debilitabS.] 
confldo me quod velim facile a te impetraturum (Fam. xi. 16. 1), I trust 1 

shall easily obtain from you what I wish. [Direct: quod void, impe- 

trabo.] 

Note. — These verbs, however, often take a simple Complementary Infinitive (§ 456) 
So regularly in early Latin (except spero) : — ! 

pollicentur obsides dare (B. G. iv. 21), they promise to give hostages. 
promisi dolium vini dare (PL Cist. 542), I promised to give ajar of wine. 

1 Compare the Greek aorist infinitive after similar verbs. 



370 SYNTAX : SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES [§§ 580, 581 

d. Some verbs and expressions may be used either as verbs of 
saying, or as verbs of commanding, effecting, and the like. These 
take as their object either an Infinitive with subject accusative or a 
Substantive clause of Purpose or Result, according to the sense. 

1 . Infinitive with Subject Accusative (Indirect Discourse) : — 

laudem sapientiae statuo esse maxiuiam (Fam. v. 13), I hold that the glory of 
wisdom is the greatest. [Indirect Discourse.] 

res ipsa monebat tempus esse (Att. x. 8. 1), the thing itself warned that it 
was time. [Cf. monere ut, warn to do something.] 

fac mini esse persuasum (N. D. i. 75), suppose that I am persuaded of that 
[Cf. facere ut, bring it about that.] 

hoc volunt persuadere, non interire animas (B. G. vi. 14), they ivish to con- 
vince that soids do not perish. 

2, Subjunctive (Substantive Clause of Purpose or Result) : — 
statuunt ut decern mllia homirmm mittantur (B. G. vii. 21), they resolve that 

10,000 men shall be sent. [Purpose clause (cf. § 563).] 
lmic persuadet uti ad hostls transeat (id. iii. 18), he persuades him to pass 

over to the enemy. 
Pompeius suis praedixerat ut Caesaris impeturu exciperent (B. C. iii. 92), 

Pompey had instructed his men beforehand to await Ccesar's attack. 
deimntiavit ut essent animo paratl (id. iii. 86), he bade them be alert and 

steadfast (ready in spirit). 

Note. — The infinitive with subject accusative in this construction is Indirect Dis- 
course, and is to be distinguished from the simple infinitive sometimes found with these 
verbs instead of a subjunctive clause (§563. d). 

581. The Subject Accusative of the Infinitive is regularly ex- 
pressed in Indirect Discourse, even if it is wanting in the direct : 
orator sum, I am an orator ; dicit se esse oratorem, he says he is an orator. 

Note 1. —But the subject is often omitted if easily understood : — 
ignoscere imprudentiae dixit (B. G. iv. 27), he said he pardoned their rashness. 
eadem ab aliis quaerit: reperit esse vera (id. i. 18), he inquires about these same 
things from others; he finds that they are true. 
Note 2. — After a relative, or quam {than), if the verb would be the same as that of 
the main clause, it is usually omitted, and its subject is attracted into the accusative : — 
te suspicor eisdem rebus quibus me ipsum commoveri (Cat. M. 1), / suspect that 

you are disturbed by the same things as I. 
confido tamen haec quoque tibi non minus grata quam ipsos libros futura (Plin. 
Ep. iii. 5. 20), J trust that these facts too loill be no less pleasing to you than 
the books themselves. 
Note 3. — In poetry, by a Greek idiom, a Predicate Noun or Adjective in the indi- 
rect discourse sometimes agrees with the subject of the main verb : — 

vir bonus et sapiens ait esse paratus (Hor. Ep. i. 7. 22), a good and wise man says 

he is prepared, etc. [In prose : ait se esse paratum.] 
sensit medios delapsus in hostls (Aen. ii. 377), he found himself fallen among the 
foe. [In prose: se esse delapsum.] 



§§ 582, 583] INDIRECT DISCOURSE 377 

582. When the verb of saying etc. is passive, the construction 
may be either Personal or Impersonal. But the Personal con- 
struction is more common and is regularly used in the tenses of 
incomplete action : — 

beate vixisse videor (Lael. 15), J seem to have lived happily. 

Epainlnondas fidibus praeclare cecinisse dicitur (Tusc. i. 4), Epaminondas is 

said to have played excellently on the lyre. 
multl idem facturi esse dicuntur (Fam. xvi. 12. 4), many are said to be about 

to do the same thing. [Active : dicunt multSs facturds (esse).] 
primi traduntur arte quadain verba vinxisse (Or. 40), they first are related to 

have joined words with a certain skill. 
Bibulus audiebatur esse in Syria (Att. v. 18), it was heard that Bibulus was in 

Syria (Bibulus was heard, etc.). [Direct : Bibulus est.] 
ceterae IllyricI legiones secuturae sperabantur (Tac. H. ii. 74), the rest of the 

legions of Illyricum were expected to follow. 
videmur enim quieturi fuisse, nisi essemus lacessiti (De Or. ii. 230), it seems 

that we should have kept quiet, if we had not been molested (we seem, etc.). 

[Direct : quiessemus . . . nisi essemus lacessiti. ] 
Note. — The poets and later writers extend the personal use of the passive to verbs 
which are not properly verba sentiendi etc. : as, — colligor dominae placuisse (Ov. Am. 
ii. 6. 61), it is gathered [from this memorial] that I pleased my mistress. 

a* In the compound tenses of verbs of saying etc., the impersonal 

construction is more common, and with the gerundive is regular : — 

traditum est etiam Homerum caecum fuisse (Tusc. v. 114), it is a tradition, 

too, that Homer was blind. 
ubi tyrannus est, ibi non vitiosam, sed dicendum est plane nullam esse rem 
publicam (Rep. iii. 43), where there is a tyrant, it must be said, not that 
the commonwealth is evil, but that it does not exist at all. 
Note. — An indirect narrative begun in the personal construction may be continued 
with the Infinitive and Accusative (as De Or. ii. 299; Liv. v. 41. 9). 

Subordinate Clauses in Indirect Discourse 

583. A Subordinate Clause merely explanatory, or containing 
statements which are regarded as true independently of the quo- 
tation, takes the Indicative : — 

quis neget haec omnia quae videmus deorum potestate administrari (Cat. iii. 

21), who can deny that all these things we see are ruled by the power of 

the gods f 
cuius ingenio putabat ea quae gesserat posse celebrari (Arch. 20), by whose 

genius he thought that those deeds which he had done could be celebrated. 

[Here the fact expressed by quae gesserat, though not explanatory, is 

felt to be true without regard to the quotation : quae gessisset would 

mean, what Marius claimed to have done.] 



378 SYNTAX: SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES [§§583,584 

• 

Note. — Such a clause in the indicative is not regarded as a part of the Indirect 
Discourse ; but it often depends merely upon the feeling of the writer whether he shall 
use the Indicative or the Subjunctive (cf. §§ 591-593). 

a. A subordinate clause in Indirect Discourse occasionally takes 
the Indicative when the fact is emphasized : — 

factum eius hostis perlculum . . . cum, Cimbiis et Teutoms . . . pulsls, non 
minorem laudem exercitus quam ipse imperator meritus videbatur (B. G. 
i. 40), that a trial of this enemy had been made when, on the defeat of the 
Cimbri and Teutoni, the army seemed to have deserved no less credit than 
the commander himself. 

b. Clauses introduced by a relative which is equivalent to a 
demonstrative with a conjunction are not properly subordinate, and 
hence take the Accusative and Infinitive in Indirect Discourse (see 
§30.8./): — 

Marcellus requlsisse dicitur Archimedem ilium, quern cum audisset inter- 
fectum permoleste tulisse (Verr. iv. 131), Marcellus is said to have sought 
for Archimedes, and when he heard that he was slain, to have been greatly 
distressed, [quern = et eum.] 

censent unum quemque nostrum mundi esse partem, ex quo [= et ex eo] 
illud natura consequi (Fin. iii. 64), they say that each one of us is a part 
of the universe, from which this naturally follows. 

Note. — Really subordinate clauses occasionally take the accusative and infinitive : 
as, — quern ad modum si non dedatur obses pro rupto foedus se habiturum, sic deditam 
inviolatam ad suos remissurum (Liv. ii. 13), [he says] as in case the hostage is not 
given up he shall consider the treaty as broken, so if given up he will return her 
unharmed to her friends. 

c. The infinitive construction is regularly continued after a com- 
parative with quam : — 

addit se prius occisum Irl ab eo quam me violatum iri (Att. ii. 20. 2), he adds 
that he himself will be killed by him, before I shall be injured. 

nonne adfirmavl quidvis me potius perpessururn quam ex Italia exiturum 
(Fam. ii. 16. 3), did I not assert that I would endure anything rather 
than leave Italy f 

Note. — The subjunctive with or without ut also occurs with quam (see § 535. c). 
i 

Tenses of the Infinitive in Indirect Discourse 

584. The Present, the Perfect, or the Future Infinitive 1 is used 
in Indirect Discourse, according as the time indicated is present, 
past, or future with reference to the verb of saying etc. by which 
the Indirect Discourse is introduced : — 

1 For various ways of expressing the Future Infinitive, see § 164. 3. c. 



§§ 584, 585] TENSES IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE 379 

cado, lam falling. 
dicit se cadere, he says he is falling. 
dixit se cadere, he said he was falling. 

cadebam, I was falling; cecidi, I fell, have fallen; 
cecideram, I had fallen. 
dicit se cecidisse, he says he was falling, fell, has fallen, had fallen. 
dixit se cecidisse, he said he fell, had fallen. 

cadam, I shall fall. 
dicit se casurum [esse] , he says he shall fall. 
dixit se casurum [esse] , he said he should fall. 

cecidero, I shall have fallen. 
dicit fore ut ceciderit [rare] , he says he shall have fallen. 
dixit fore ut cecidisset [rare], he said he should have fallen. 

a* All varieties of past time are usually expressed in Indirect 
Discourse by the Perfect Infinitive, which may stand for the Imper- 
fect, the Perfect, or the Pluperfect Indicative of the Direct. 

Note. — Continued or repeated action in past time is sometimes expressed by the 
Present Infinitive, which in such cases stands for the Imperfect Indicative of the Direct 
Discourse and is often called the Imperfect Infinitive. 

This is the regular construction after memini when referring to a matter of actual 
experience or observation: as, — te memini haec dicere, I remember your saying this 
(that you said this) . [Direct : dixisti or dicebas.] 

b. The present infinitive posse often has a future sense : — 
totius Galliae sese potiri posse sperant (B. G. i. 3), they hope that they shall 
be able to get possession of all Gaul. 

Tenses of the Subjunctive in Indirect Discourse 

585. The tenses of the Subjunctive in Indirect Discourse fol- 
low the rule for the Sequence of Tenses (§ 482). They depend for 
their sequence on the verb of saying etc. by which the Indirect 
Discourse is introduced. 

Thus in the sentence, dixit se Romam iturum ut consulem videret, he said he 
should go to Rome in order that he might see the consul, videret follows the sequence 
of dixit without regard to the Future Infinitive, iturum [esse], on which it directly 
depends. 

Note. — This rule applies to the subjunctive in subordinate clauses, to that which 
stands for the imperative etc. (see examples, § 588), and to that in questions (§ 586). 

a. A subjunctive depending on a Perfect Infinitive is often in the 
Imperfect or Pluperfect, even if the verb of saying etc. is in a pri- 
mary tense (cf . § 485., j) ; so regularly when these tenses would have 
been used in Direct Discourse : — 



380 SYNTAX: SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES [§§585,586 

Tarquinium dixisse ferunt turn exsulantem se intellexisse quos fidos amicos 
habuisset (Lael. 53), they tell us that Tarquin said that then in his exile 
he had found out what faithful friends he had had. [Here the main verb 
of saying, ferunt, is primary, but the time is carried back by dixisse and 
intellexisse, and the sequence then becomes secondary.] 

tantum profecisse videmur ut a Graecls ne verborum quidem copia vinceremur 
(N. D. i. 8), we seem to have advanced so far that even in abundance of 
words we are not surpassed by the Greeks. 

Note 1. — The proper sequence may be seen, in each case, by turning the Perfect 
Infinitive into that tense of the Indicative which it represents. Thus, if it stands for 
an imperfect or an historical perfect, the sequence will be secondary ; if it stands for 
a perfect definite, the sequence may be either primary or secondary (§ 485. a). 

Note 2. — The so-called imperfect infinitive after memini (§584. a. n.) takes the 
secondary sequence: as, — ad me adire quosdam memini, qui dicerent (Fam. iii. 10. 6), I 
remember that some persons visited me, to tell me, etc. 

b. The Present and Perfect Subjunctive are often used in depend- 
ent clauses of the Indirect Discourse even when the verb of saying 
etc. is in a secondary tense : — 

dlcebant . . . totidem Nervios (polliceri) qui longissime absint (B. G. ii. 4), 
they said that the Nervii, who live farthest off, promised as many. 

Note. — This construction comes from the tendency of language to refer all time 
in narration to the time of the speaker (repraesentatio) . In the course of a long pas- 
sage in the Indirect Discourse the tenses of the subjunctive often vary, sometimes fol- 
lowing the sequence, and sometimes affected by repraesentatio. Examples may be 
seen in B. G. i. 13, vii. 20, etc. 

Certain constructions are never affected by repraesentatio. Such are the Imperfect 
and Pluperfect Subjunctive with cum temporal, antequam, and priusquam. 

Questions in Indirect Discourse 

586, A Question in Indirect Discourse may be either in the 
Subjunctive or in the Infinitive with Subject Accusative. 

A real question, asking for an answer, is generally put in the 
Subjunctive ; a rhetorical question, asked for effect and implying 
its own answer, is put in the Infinitive : — 

quid sibi vellet ? cur in suas possessionem yeniret (B. G. i. 44), what did he 
want ? why did he come into his territories ? [Real question. Direct : 
quid vis ? cur venis ?] 

num recentium iniuriarum memoriam [se] deponere posse (id. i. 14), coidd 
he lay aside the memory of recent wrongs? [Rhetorical Question. 
Direct : num possum ?] 

quern signum daturum fugientibus ? quern ausurum Alexandro succedere (Q. C. 
iii. 5. 7), who will give the signal on the retreat? who will dare succeed 
Alexander? [Rhetorical. Direct: quis dabit . . . audebit.] 



§§586-589] COMMANDS IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE 381 

Note 1. — No sharp line can be drawn between the Subjunctive and the Infinitive 
in questions in the Indirect Discourse. Whether the question is to be regarded as 
rhetorical or real often depends merely on the writer's point of view: — 

utrum partem regni petiturum esse, an totum erepturum (Liv. xlv. 19. li>) } will you 

ask part of the regal power (he said), or seize the whole? 
quid tandem praetori faciendum fuisse (id. xxxi. 48), what, pray, ought aprsetor to 

have done f 
quid repente factum [esse] cur, etc. (id. xxxiv. 54), what had suddenly happened, 
that, etc.? 
Note 2. — Questions coming immediately after a verb of asking are treated as Indi- 
rect Questions and take the Subjunctive (see § 574). This is true even when the verb 
of asking serves also to introduce a passage in the Indirect Discourse. The question 
may be either real or rhetorical. See quaesivit, etc. (Liv. xxxvii. 15). 
For the use of tenses, see § 585. 

587. A Deliberative Subjunctive (§ 444) in the Direct Dis- 
course is always retained in the Indirect : — 

curaliquos ex suis amitteret (B. C. i. 72), ivhy (thought he) should he lose 
some of his men f [Direct : cur amittam ?] 

Commands in Indirect Discourse 

588. All Imperative forms of speech take the Subjunctive in 

Indirect Discourse : — 

remimsceretur veteris incommodl (B. G. i. 13), remember (said he) the ancient 

disaster. [Direct: remimscere.] 
finein faciat (id. i. 20), let him make an end. [Direct: fac] 
ferrent opem, adiuvarent (Liv. ii. 6), let them bring aid, let them help. 

a. This rule applies not only to the Imperative of the direct dis- 
course, but to the Hortatory and the Optative Subjunctive as well. 

Note 1. — Though these subjunctives stand for independent clauses of the direct 
discourse, they follow the rule for the -sequence of tenses, being in fact dependent on 
the verb of saying etc. (cf. §§ 483, 585). 

Note 2. — A Prohibition in the Indirect Discourse is regularly expressed by ne with 
the present or imperfect subjunctive, even when noli with the infinitive would be used 
in the Direct: as, — ne perturbarentur (B. G. vii. 29), do not (he said) be troubled. 
[Direct: nolite perturbari. But sometimes nollet is found in Indirect Discourse.] 

Conditions in Indirect Discourse 

589. Conditional sentences in Indirect Discourse are expressed 
as follows : — 

1. The Protasis, being a subordinate clause, is always in the 
Subjunctive. 

2. The Apodosis, if independent and not hortatory or optative, 
is always in some form of the Infinitive. 



382 SYNTAX: SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES [§589 

a. The Present Subjunctive in the apodosis of less vivid future 
conditions (§ 516. b) becomes the Future Infinitive like the Future 
Indicative in the apodosis of more vivid future conditions. 

Thus there is no distinction between more and less vivid future 
conditions in the Indirect Discourse. 

Examples of Conditional Sentences in Indirect Discourse are — 

1. Simple Present Condition (§515): — 

(dixit) si ipse populo Romano non praescriberet qnem ad modum suo itire 
uteretur, non oportere sese a populo Romano in suo itire impedirl (B. G. 
i. 36), he said that if he did not dictate to the Roman people how they 
should use their rights, he ought not to be interfered with by the Roman 
people in the exercise of his rights. [Direct : si n5n praescribo . . . non 
oportet. ] 

praedicavit ... si pace uti velint, iniquum esse, etc. (id. i. 44), he asserted 
that if they wished to enjoy peace, it was unfair, etc. [Direct : si volunt 
. . . est. Present tense kept by repraesentatio (§ 585. b. n.).] 

2. Simple Past Condition (§ 515) : — 

non dicam ne illud quidein, si maxime in culpa fuerit Apollonius, tamen in 
hominem honestissimae civitatis honestissimum tarn graviter animad- 
verti, causa indicta, non oportuisse (Verr. v. 20), I will not say this 
either, that, even if Apollonius was very greatly in fault, still an honorable 
man from an honorable state ought not to have been punished so severely 
without having his case heard. [Direct : si fuit . . . non oportuit.] 

3. Future Conditions (§ 516): — 

(dixit) quod si praeterea nemo sequatur, tamen se cum sola decima legione 
iturum (B. G. i. 40), but if nobody else should follow, still he would go 
with the tenth legion alone. [Direct : si sequetur . . . Ib5. Present tense 
by repraesentatio (§ 585. b. n.).] 

Haeduls se obsides redditurum non esse, neque eis . . . bellum illaturum, si 
in eo manerent, quod convenisset, stipendiumque quotannis penderent : 
si id non fecissent, longe eis fraternum nomen populi Roman! afutu- 
rum (id. i. 36), he said that he would not give up the hostages to the 
Haedui, but w mid not make war upon them if they observed the agreement 
which had been made, and paid tribute yearly ; but that, if they should 
not do this, the name of brothers to the Roman people would be far from 
aiding them. [Direct : reddam . . . inferam ... si manebunt . . . pen- 
dent : si non f ecerint . . . aberit. ] 

id Datames ut audlvit, sensit, si in turbam exisset ab homine tam necessa- 
rio se relictum, futurum [esse] ut ceteri consilium sequantur (Nep. Dat. 
6), when Datames heard this, he saw that, if it should get abroad that he 
had been abandoned by a man so closely connected with him, everybody 
else would follow his example. [Direct : si exient . . . sequentur. ] 



§ 589] CONDITIONS IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE 383 

(putaverunt) nisi me clvitate expulissent, obtinere se non posse licentiam 
cupiditatum suarum (Att. x. 4), they thought that unless they drove me 
out of the state, they could not have free play for their desires. [Direct : 
nisi (Ciceronem) expulerimus, obtinere non poterimus.] 

b. In changing a Condition contrary to fact (§ 517) into the Indi- 
rect Discourse, the following points require notice : — 

1. The Protasis always remains unchanged in tense. 

2. The Apodosis, if active, takes a peculiar infinitive form, made by com- 
bining the Participle in -urus with fuisse. 

3. If the verb of the Apodosis is passive or has no supine stem, the pe- 
riphrasis futurum fuisse ut (with the Imperfect Subjunctive) must be used. 

4. An Indicative in the Apodosis becomes a Perfect Infinitive. 
Examples are : — 

nee se superstitem flliae futurum fuisse, nisi spern ulclscendae mortis ems 
in auxilio commllitonum habuisset (Liv. iii. 50. 7), and that he should 
not now be a survivor, etc. , unless he had had hope, etc. [Direct : n5n 
superstes essem, nisi habuissem.] 

illud Asia cogitet, nullam a se neque belli externi neque discordiarum do- 
mesticarum calamitatem afuturam fuisse, si hoc imperio non teneretur 
(Q. Fr. i. 1. 34), let Asia (personified) think of this, that no disaster, etc.j 
would not be hers, if she were not held by this government. [Direct : 
abesset, si n5n tenerer.] 

quid inimlcitiarum creditis [me] excepturum fuisse, si insontis lacessissem 
(Q. C. vi. 10. 18), what enmities do you think I should have incurred, if 
I had wantonly assailed the innocent f [excepissem ... si lacessissem.] 

invitum se dicere, nee dicturum fuisse, ni caritas rei piiblicae vinceret (Liv. 
ii. 2), that he spoke unwillingly and should not have spoken, did not love 
for the state prevail. [Direct: nee dixissem . . . ni vinceret.] 

nisi eo tempore quidam niintii de Caesaris victoria . . . essent allati, existi- 
mabant plerique futurum fuisse uti [oppidum] amitteretur (B. C. iii. 101), 
most people thought that unless at that time reports of Ccesar's victory 
had been brought, the town would have been lost. [Direct : nisi essent 
allati . . . amissum esset.] 

quorum si aetas potuisset esse longinquior, futurum fuisse ut omnibus per- 
fects artibus hominuin vita erudiretur (Tusc. iii. 69), if life could have 
been longer, human existence would have been embellished by every art in 
its perfection. [Direct: si potuisset . . . erudita esset.] 

at plerique existimant, si acrius Insequi voluisset, bellurn eo die potuisse 
finire (B. C. iii. 51), but most people think that, if he had chosen to follow 
up the pursuit more vigorously, he could have ended the war on that day. 
[Direct: si voluisset . . . potuit.] 

Caesar respondit ... si alicuius iniuriae sibi conscius fuisset, non fuisse dif- 
ficile cavere (B. G. i. 14), Ccesar replied that if [the Roman people] had 
been aware of any wrong act, it would not have been hard for them to take 
precautions, [Direct; si fuisset, non difficile fuit (§517. c).] 



384 SYNTAX: SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES [§§589-591 

Note 1. — In Indirect Discourse Present Conditions contrary to fact are not dis- 
tinguished in the apodosis from Past Conditions contrary to fact, but the protasis may 
keep them distinct. 

Note 2. — The periphrasis futurum fuisse ut is sometimes used from choice when 
there is no necessity for resorting to it, but not in Caesar or Cicero. 

Note 3. — Very rarely the Future Infinitive is used in the Indirect Discourse to ex- 
press the Apodosis of a Present Condition contrary to fact. Only four or five examples 
of this use occur in classic authors: as, — Titurius clamabat si Caesar adesset neque 
Carnutes, etc., neque Eburones tanta cum contemptione nostra ad castra venturos esse 
(B. G. v. 29), Titurius cried out that if Caesar were present, neither would the Car- 
nutes, etc., nor would the Eburones be coining to our camp with such contempt, 
[Direct: si adesset . . . venirent.] 

590. The following example illustrates some of the foregoing 
principles in a connected address : — 

indirect discourse direct discourse 

SI pacem populus Romanus cum Si pacem populus Romanus cum 

Helvetiis faceret, in earn partem ituros Helvetils faciet, in earn partem ibunt 

atque ibi futurds Helvetios, ubi eos atque ibi erunt Helvetii, ubi eos tu 

Caesar constituisset atque esse voluis- constitueris atque esse volueris : sin 

set : sin bello persequi perseveraret, bello persequi perseverabis, reminiscere 

reminisceretur et veteris incommodi [inquit] et veteris incommodi populi 

populi Roman!, et pristinae virtiitis Roman!, et pristinae virtiitis Helve- 

Helvetiorum. Quod improviso unum tiorum. Quod improviso unum pagum 

pagum adortus esset, cum ei qui fltimen adortus es, cum el qui flumen transie- 

transissent suis auxilium ferre non pos- rant suis auxilium ferre non possent, ne 

sent, ne ob earn rem aut suae magno ob earn rem aut tuae magno opere vir- 

opere virtiiti tribueret, aut ips5s despi- tuti tribueris, aut nos despexeris : nos 

ceret : se ita a patribus maioribusque ita a patribus m&ioribusque nostris didi- 

suis didicisse, ut magis virtute quam cimus, ut magis virttite quam dolo con- 

dolo contenderent, aut Insidiis niteren- tendamus, aut Insidiis nitamur. Qua re 

tur. Qua re ne committeret, ut is locus noli committere, ut hie locus ubi consti- 

ubi constitissent ex calamitate populi timus ex calamitate populi Roman! et 

RomanI et internecione exercitus no- internecione exercitus nomen capiat, 

men caperet, aut memoriam proderet. aut memoriam prodat. 
— B. G. i. 13. 

Intermediate Clauses 

591. A Subordinate clause takes the Subjunctive — 

1. When it expresses the thought of some other person than the 
speaker or writer (Informal Indirect Discourse), or 

2. When it is an integral part of a Subjunctive clause or equiva- 
lent Infinitive (Attraction)} 

1 See note on Indirect Discourse (§ 577). 



§592] INFORMAL INDIRECT DISCOURSE 385 

Informal Indirect Discourse 

592. A Subordinate Clause takes the Subjunctive when it 
expresses the thought of some other person than the writer or 
speaker : — 

1. When the clause depends upon another containing a wish, a 
command, or a question, expressed indirectly, though not strictly in 
the form of Indirect Discourse : — 

animal sentit quid sit quod deceat (Off. i. 14), an animal feels what it is that 
is fit. 

huic imperat quas possit adeat civitates (B. G. iv. 21), he orders him to visit 
what states he can. 

lmnc sibi ex animo sempulum, qui se dies noctisque stimulat ac pungit, ut 
evellatis postulat (Rose. Am. 6), he begs you to pluck from his heart this 
doubt that goads and stings him day and night. [Here the relative 
clause is not a part of the Purpose expressed in evellatis, but is an 
assertion made by the subject of postulat.] 

2. When the main clause of a quotation is merged in the verb of 
saying, or some modifier of it : — 

si quid de his rebus dlcere vellet, feci potestatem (Cat. iii. 11), if he wished 
to say anything about these matters, I gave him a chance. 

tulit de caede quae in Appia via facta esset (Mil. 15), he passed a law con- 
cerning the murder which (in the language of the bill) took place in the 
Appian Way. 

nisi restituissent statuas, vehementer minatur (Verr. ii. 162), he threatens them 
violently unless they should restore the statues. [Here the main clause, 
"that he will inflict punishment,' ' is contained in minatur.] 

iis auxilium suum pollicitus si ab Suebls premerentur (B. G. iv. 19), he 
promised them his aid if they should be molested by the Suevi. [ = polli- 
citus se auxilium laturum, etc.] 

prohibitio tollendl, nisi pactus esset, vim adhibebat paction! (Verr. iii. 37), 
the forbidding to take away unless he came to terms gave force to the 
bargain. 

3. When a reason or an explanatory fact is introduced by a rela- 
tive or by quod (rarely quia) (see § 540) : — 

Paetus omnls libros quos frater suus reliquisset mihi donavit (Att. ii. 1. 12), 
Poetus presented to me all the books vMch (he said) his brother had left. 

Note. — Under this head even what the speaker himself thought under other cir- 
cumstances may have the Subjunctive. So also with quod even the verb of saying may 
be in the Subjunctive (§ 540. n. 2 ). Here belong also non quia, non quod, introducing a 
reason expressly to deny it. (See § 540. n. 3 .) 



386 SYNTAX: INTERMEDIATE CLAUSES 



[§593 



Subjunctive of Integral Part (Attraction) 

593. A clause depending upon a Subjunctive clause or an 
equivalent Infinitive will itself take the Subjunctive if regarded 
as an integral part of that clause : — l 

imperat, dum res iudicetur, hominem adservent : cum iudicata sit, ad se ut 
adducant (Yerr. iii. 55), he orders them, till the affair should be decided, 
to keep the man ; when it is judged, to bring him to him. 

etenim quis tarn dissoluto animo est, qui haec cum videat, tacere ac neglegere 
possit (Rose. Am. 32), for who is so reckless of spirit that, when he sees 
these things, he can keep silent and pass them by f 

mos est Athenls laudari iu contione eos qui sint in proelils interfecti (Or. 
151), it is the custom at Athens for those to be publicly eulogized who 
have been slain in battle. [Here laudari is equivalent to ut laudentur.] 

a. But a dependent clause may be closely connected grammatically 
with a Subjunctive or Infinitive clause, and still take the Indicative, 
if it is not regarded as a necessary logical part of that clause : — 

quodam mod 6 postulat ut, quern ad modum est, sic etiam appelletur, tyrannus 
(Att. x. 4. 2), in a manner he demands that as he is, so he may be called, 
a tyrant. 

natura fert ut els faveamus qui eadem perlcula quibus nos perfunctl sumus 
ingrediuntur (Mur. 4), nature prompts us to feel friendly towards those 
who are entering on the same dangers which we have passed through. 

ne hostes, quod tantum multitudine poterant, suos circumvenire possent 
(B. G. ii. 8), lest the enemy, because they were so strong in numbers, should 
be able to surround his men. 

si mea in te essent officia solum tanta quanta magis a te ipso praedicarl 
quam a me ponderarl solent, verecundius a te . . . peterem (Fam. ii. 6), 
if my good services to you were only so great as they are wont rather to 
be called by you than to be estimated by me, I should, etc. 

Note 1. — The use of the Indicative in such clauses sometimes serves to emphasize 
the fact, as true independently of the statement contained in the subjunctive or infini- 
tive clause. But in many cases no such distinction is perceptible. 

Note 2. — It is often difficult to distinguish between Informal Indirect Discourse 
and the Integral Part. Thus in imperavit ut ea fierent quae opus essent, essent may 
stand for sunt, and then will be Indirect Discourse, being a part of the thought, but 
not a part of the order ; or it may stand for erunt, and then will be Integral Part, being 
a part of the order itself. The difficulty of making the distinction in such cases is 
evidence of the close relationship between these two constructions. 

1 The subjunctive in this use is of the same nature as the subjunctive in the main 
clause. A dependent clause in a clause of purpose is really a part of the purpose, as 
is seen from the use of should and other auxiliaries in English. In a result clause this 
is less clear, but the result construction is a branch of the characteristic (§ 534) , to 
which category the dependent clause in this case evidently belongs when it takes the 
subjunctive. 



594] SYNTAX: IMPORTANT RULES 387 

594. IMPORTANT RULES OF SYNTAX 

1. A noun used to describe another, and denoting the same person or 

thing, agrees with it in Case (§ 282). 

2. Adjectives, Adjective Pronouns, and Participles agree with their 

nouns in Gender, Number, and Case (§ 286). 

3. Superlatives (more rarely Comparatives) denoting order and succes- 

sion — also medius, (ceterus), reliquus — usually designate not what 
object, but what part of it, is meant (§ 293). 

4. The Personal Pronouns have two forms for the genitive plural, that 

in -urn being used partitively, and that in -l oftenest objectively 
(§ 295. b). 

5. The Reflexive Pronoun (se), and usually the corresponding possessive 

(suus), are used in the predicate to refer to the subject of the sen- 
tence or clause (§299). 

6. To express Possession and similar ideas the Possessive Pronouns 

must be used, not the genitive of the personal or reflexive pro- 
nouns (§ 302. a). 

7. A Possessive Pronoun or an Adjective implying possession may take 

an appositive in the genitive case agreeing in gender, number, and 
case with an implied noun or pronoun (§ 302. e). 

8. A Relative Pronoun agrees with its Antecedent in Gender and Num- 

ber, but its Case depends on its construction in the clause in 
which it stands (§ 305). 

9. A Finite Verb agrees with its Subject in Number and Person (§ 316). 

10. Adverbs are used to modify Verbs, Adjectives, and other Adverbs 

(§ 321). 

11. A Question of simple fact, requiring the answer yes or no, is formed 

by adding the enclitic -ne to the emphatic word (§ 332). 

12. When the enclitic -ne is added to a negative word, — as in nonne, — 

an affirmative answer is expected. The particle num suggests a 
negative answer (§ 332. &). 

13. The Subject of a finite verb is in the Nominative (§ 339). 

14. The Vocative is the case of direct address (§ 340). 

15. A noun used to limit or define another, and not meaning the same 

person or thing, is put in the Genitive (§ 342). 

16. The Possessive Genitive denotes the person or thing to which an 

object, quality, feeling, or action belongs (§ 343). 



388 SYNTAX: IMPORTANT RULES [§594 

17. The genitive may denote the Substance or Material of which a 

thing consists (§ 344). 

18. The genitive is used to denote Quality, but only when the quality is 

modified by an adjective (§ 345). 

19. Words denoting a part are followed by the Genitive of the whole to 

which the part belongs (Partitive Genitive, § 346). 

20. Nouns of action, agency, and feeling govern the Genitive of the object 

(Objective Genitive, § 348). 

21. Adjectives denoting desire, knowledge, memory, fulness, power, sharing, 

guilt, and their opposites ; participles in -ns when used as adjectives ; 
and verbals in -ax, govern the Genitive (§ 349. a, b, c). 

22. Verbs of remembering and forgetting take either the Accusative or 

the Genitive of the object (§ 350). 

23. Verbs of reminding take with the Accusative of the person a Genitive 

of the thing (§ 351). 

24. Verbs of accusing, condemning, and acquitting take the Genitive of 

the charge or penalty (§ 352). 

25. The Dative is used of the object indirectly affected by an action 

(Indirect Object, § 361). 

26. Many verbs signifying to favor, help, please, trust, and their contraries ; 

also, to believe, persuade, command, obey, serve, resist, envy, threaten, 
pardon, and spare, take the Dative (§ 367). 

27. Many verbs compounded with ad, ante, con, in, inter, ob, post, prae, 

pro, sub, super, and some with circum, admit the Dative of the 
indirect object (§ 370). 

28. The Dative is used with esse and similar words to denote Possession 

(§ 373). 

29. The Dative of the Agent is used with the Gerundive, to denote the 

person on whom the necessity rests (§ 374). 

30. The Dative often depends, not on any particular word, but on the 

general meaning of the sentence (Dative of Reference, § 376). 

81. Many verbs of taking away and the like take the Dative (especially 
of a person) instead of the Ablative of Separation (§ 381). 

32. The Dative is used to denote the Purpose or End, often with another 

Dative of the person or thing affected (§ 382). 

33. The Dative is used with adjectives (and a few adverbs) of fitness % 

nearness, likeness, service, inclination, and their opposites (§ 384). 



§594] SYNTAX: IMPORTANT RULES 389 

34. The Direct Object of a transitive verb is put in the Accusative 

(§ 387). 

35. An intransitive verb often takes the Accusative of a noun of kindred 

meaning, usually modified by an adjective or in some other man- 
ner (Cognate Accusative, § 390). 

36. Verbs of naming, choosing, appointing, making, esteeming, showing, and 

the like, may take a Predicate Accusative along with the direct 
object (§ 393). 

37. Transitive verbs compounded with prepositions sometimes take (in 

addition to the direct object) a Secondary Object, originally gov- 
erned by the preposition (§ 394). 

38. Some verbs of asking and teaching may take two Accusatives, one of 

the Person, and the other of the Thing (§ 396). 

39. The subject of an Infinitive is in the Accusative (§ 397. e). 

40. Duration of Time and Extent of Space are expressed by the Accusa- 

tive (§§ 424. c, 425). 

41. Words signifying separation or privation are followed by the Abla- 

tive (Ablative of Separation, § 400). 

42. The Ablative, usually with a preposition, is used to denote the source 

from which anything is derived or the material of which it consists 
(§ 403). 

43. The Ablative, with or without a preposition, is used to express cause 

(§404). 

44. The Voluntary Agent after a passive verb is expressed by the Abla- 

tive with aorab (§ 405). 

45. The Comparative degree is often followed by the Ablative signifying 

than (§ 406). 

46. The Comparative may be followed by quam, than. When quam is 

used, the two things compared are put in the same case (§ 407). 

47. The Ablative is used to denote the means or instrument of an action 

(§ 409). 

48. The deponents, iitor, fruor, fungor, potior, and vescor, with several of 

their compounds, govern the Ablative (§ 410). 

49. Opus and usus, signifying need, are followed by the Ablative (§ 411). 

50. The manner of an action is denoted by the Ablative, usually with 

cum unless a limiting adjective is used with the noun (§ 412). 



390 SYNTAX: IMPORTANT RULES [§594 

51. Accompaniment is denoted by the Ablative, regularly with cum 

(§ 413). 

52. With Comparatives and words implying comparison the Ablative is 

used to denote the degree of difference (§ 414). 

53. The quality of a thing is denoted by the Ablative with an adjective 

or genitive Modifier (§ 415). 

54. The price of a thing is put in the Ablative (§ 416). 

55. The Ablative of Specification denotes that in respect to which any- 

thing is or is done (§ 418). 

56. The adjectives dignus and indignus take the Ablative (§ 418. b). 

57. A noun or pronoun, with a participle in agreement, may be put in 

the Ablative to define the time or circumstances of an action 
(Ablative Absolute, § 419). 

An adjective, or a second noun, may take the place of the participle in the 
ablative absolute construction (§ 419. a) . 

58. Time when, or within which, is denoted by the Ablative ; time how 

long by the Accusative (§ 423). 

59- Relations of Place are expressed as follows: — 

1. The place from which, by the Ablative with ab, de, ex. 

2. The place to which (or end of motion), by the Accusative with 

ad or in. 

3. The place where, by the Ablative with in {Locative Ablative). 

(§ 426.) 

60. With names of towns and small islands, and with domus and rus, the 

relations of place are expressed as follows : — 

1. The place from which, by the Ablative without a preposition. 

2. The place to which, by the Accusative without a preposition. 

3. The place where, by the Locative. (§ 427.) 

61. The Hortatory Subjunctive is used in the present tense to express 

an exhortation, a command, or a concession (§§ 439, 440). 

62. The Optative Subjunctive is used to express a wish. The present 

tense denotes the wish as possible, the imperfect as unaccomplished 
in present time, the pluperfect as unaccomplished in past time 
(§ 441). 

63. The Subjunctive is used in questions implying (1) doubt, indignation, 

or (2) an impossibility of the thing's being done (Deliberative Sub- 
junctive, § 444). 



694] SYNTAX. IMPORTANT RULES 391 

64. The Potential Subjunctive is used to suggest an action as possible or 

conceivable (§ 446). 

65. The Imperative is used in commands and entreaties (§ 448). 

66. Prohibition is regularly expressed in classic prose (1) by noli with the 

Infinitive, (2) by cave with the Present Subjunctive, (3) by ne with 
the Perfect Subjunctive (§ 450). 

67. The Infinitive, with or without a subject accusative, may be used 

with est and similar verbs (1) as the Subject, (2) in Apposition with 
the subject, or (3) as a Predicate Nominative (§ 452). 

68. Verbs which imply another action of the same subject to complete their 

meaning take the Infinitive without a subject accusative (Comple- 
mentary Infinitive, § 456). 

69. The Infinitive, with subject accusative, is used with verbs and other 

expressions of knowing, thinking, telling, and perceiving (Indirect 
Discourse, see § 459). 

70. The Infinitive is often used for the Imperfect Indicative in narration, 

and takes a subject in the Nominative (Historical Infinitive, § 463). 

71. Sequence of Tenses. In complex sentences, a primary tense in 

the main clause is followed by the Present or Perfect Subjunctive 
in the dependent clause ; a secondary tense by the Imperfect or 
Pluperfect (§ 483). 

72. Participles denote time as present, past, or future with respect to the 

time of the verb in their clause (§ 489). 

73. The Gerund and the Gerundive are used, in the oblique cases, in 

many of the constructions of nouns (§§ 501-507). 

74. The Supine in -urn is used after verbs of motion to express Purpose 

(§ 509). 

75. The Supine in -u is used with a few adjectives and with the nouns 

fas, nefas, and opus, to denote Specification (§ 510). 

76. Dum, modo, dummodo, and tantum ut, introducing a Proviso, take 

the Subjunctive (§ 528). 

77. Final clauses take the Subjunctive introduced by ut (uti), negative 

ne (ut ne), or by a Relative Pronoun or Relative Adverb (§ 531). 

78. A Relative Clause with the Subjunctive is often used to indicate a 

characteristic of the antecedent, especially where the antecedent is 
otherwise undefined (§ 535). 

79. Dignus, indignus, aptus, and idoneus, take a Subjunctive clause with 

a relative (rarely with ut) (§ 535./). 



392 SYNTAX : IMPORTANT RULES [§ 594 

80. Clauses of Result take the Subjunctive introduced by ut, so that 

(negative, Ht non), or by a Relative Pronoun or Relative Adverb 
(§ 537). 

81. The Causal Particles quod, quia, and quoniam take the Indicative 

when the reason is given on the authority of the writer or speaker ; 
the Subjunctive when the reason is given on the authority of 
another (§ 540). 

82. The particles postquam (posteaquam), ubi, ut (ut prlmum, ut semel), 

simul atque (simul ac, or simul alone) take the Indicative (usually 
in the perfect or the historical present} (§ 543). 

83. A Temporal clause with cum, when, and some past tense of the Indica- 

tive dates or defines the time at which the action of the main verb 
occurred (§ 545). 

84. A Temporal clause with cum and the Imperfect or Pluperfect Sub- 

junctive describes the circumstances that accompanied or preceded 
the action of the main verb (§ 546). 

85. Cum Causal or Concessive takes the Subjunctive (§ 549). 

For other concessive particles, see § 527. 

86. In Indirect Discourse the main clause of a Declaratory Sentence is 

put in the Infinitive with Subject Accusative. All subordinate 
clauses take the Subjunctive (§ 580). 

87. The Present, the Perfect, or the Future Infinitive is used in Indirect 

Discourse, according as the time indicated is present, past, or future 
with reference to the verb of saying etc. by which the Indirect Dis- 
course is introduced (§ 584). 

88. In Indirect Discourse a real question is generally put in the Subjunc- 

tive; a rhetorical question in the Infinitive (§ 586). 

89. All Imperative forms of speech take the Subjunctive in Indirect 

Discourse (§ 588). 

90. A Subordinate clause takes the Subjunctive when it expresses the 

thought of some other person than the writer or speaker (Informal 
Indirect Discourse, § 592). 

91. A clause depending on a Subjunctive clause or an equivalent Infini- 

tive will itself take the Subjunctive if regarded as an integral part 
of that clause (Attraction, § 593). 

For Prepositions and their cases, see §§ 220, 221. 

For Conditional Sentences, see § 512 ff. (Scheme in § 514.) 

For ways of expressing Purpose, see § 533. 



§§696-597] ORDEE OF WORDS 393 



ORDER OF WORDS 

595. Latin differs from English in having more freedom in the 
arrangement of words for the purpose of showing the relative 
importance of the ideas in a sentence. 

596. As in other languages, the Subject tends to stand first, the 

Predicate last. Thus, — 

Pausanias Lacedaemonius magnus homo sed varius in omni genere vitae fuit 
(Nep. Paus. 1), Pausanias the Lacedaemonian was a great man, but in- 
consistent in the whole course of his life. 

Note. — This happens because, from the speaker's ordinary point of view, the sub- 
ject of his discourse is the most important thing in it, as singled out from all other 
things to be spoken of. 

a. There is in Latin, however, a special tendency to place the verb itself 
last of all, after all its modifiers. But many writers purposely avoid the 
monotony of this arrangement by putting the verb last but one, followed 
by some single word of the predicate. 

597. In connected discourse the word most prominent in the 
speaker's mind comes first, and so on in order of prominence. 

This relative prominence corresponds to that indicated in Eng- 
lish by a graduated stress of voice (usually called emphasis). 

a* The difference in emphasis expressed by difference in order of words 
is illustrated in the following passages : — 

apud Xenophontem autem moriens Cyrus m&ior haec dicit (Cat. M. 79), in 

Xenophon too, on his death-bed Cyrus the elder utters these words. 
Cyrus quidem haec moriens ; nos, si placet, nostra videamus (id. 82), Cyrus, 
to be sure, utters these words on his death-bed ; let us, if you please, con- 
sider our own case. 
Cyrus quidem apud Xenophontem eo sermone, quem moriens habuit (id. 
30), Cyrus, to be sure, in Xenophon, in that speech which he uttered on 
his death-bed. 
Note. — This stress or emphasis, however, in English does not necessarily show 
any violent contrast to the rest of the words in the sentence, hut is infinitely varied, 
constantly increasing and diminishing, and often so subtle as to be unnoticed except 
in careful study. So, as a general rule, the precedence of words in a Latin sentence 
is not mechanical, but corresponds to the prominence which a good speaker would 
mark by skilfully managed stress of voice. A Latin written sentence, therefore, has 
all the clearness and expression which could be given to a spoken discourse by the best 
actor in English. Some exceptions to the rule will be treated later. 

The first chapter of Caesar's Gallic War, if rendered so as to bring 
out as far as possible the shades of emphasis, would run thus : — 



394 ORDER OF WORDS [§597 

GAUL, 1 in the widest sense, is di- Gallia est omnis dlvlsa in partis 

vided 2 into three parts, s which are tris, quarum unain incolunt Belgae, 

inhabited* (as follows): one 5 by the aliam Aquitani, tertiam qui ipsorum 

Belgians, another 6 by the Aquitani, lingua Celtae, nostra Galli appellan- 

the third by a people called in their tur. Hi omnes lingua, Institutls, legi- 

own 1 language Celts, in ours Gauls. bus inter se differunt. Gallos ab 

These 8 in their language, 9 institutions, Aquitanis Garumna flumen, a Belgls 

and laws are all of them 10 different. Matrona et Sequana dividit. Horum 

The GAULS 11 (proper) are separated 12 omnium fortissiml sunt Belgae, prop- 

from the Aquitani by the river Garonne, terea quod a cultu atque hurnanitate 
from the Belgians by the Marne and 
Seine. Of these 13 (tribes) the brav- 
est of all 14 are the Belgians, for the 
reason that they live farthest 15 away 

1 GAUL: emphatic as the subject of discourse, as with a title or the like. 

2 Divided : opposed to the false conception (implied in the use of omnis) that the 
country called Gallia by the Romans is one. This appears more clearly from the fact 
that Osesar later speaks of the Galli in a narrower sense as distinct from the other two 
tribes, who with them inhabit Gallia in the wider sense. 

8 Parts : continuing the emphasis begun in divisa. Not three parts as opposed to 
any other number, but into parts at all. 

4 Inhabited : emphatic as the next subject, "The inhabitants of these parts are, etc." 

5 One : given more prominence than it otherwise would have on account of its close 
connection with quarum. 

6 Another, etc. : opposed to one. 

7 Their own, ours : strongly opposed to each other. 

8 These (tribes) : the main subject of discourse again, collecting under one head 
the names previously mentioned. 

9 Language, etc. : these are the most prominent ideas, as giving the striking points 
which distinguish the tribes. The emphasis becomes natural in English if we say 
" these have a different language, different institutions, different laws." 

10 All of them: the emphasis on all marks the distributive character of the adjec- 
tive, as if it were "every one has its own, etc." 

11 GAULS : emphatic as referring to the Gauls proper in distinction from the other 
tribes. 

12 Separated : though this word contains an indispensable idea in the connection, yet 
it has a subordinate position. It is not emphatic in Latin, as is seen from the fact that 
it cannot be made emphatic in English. The sense is: The Gauls lie between the 
Aquitani on the one side, and the Belgians on the other. 

13 Of these : the subject of discourse. 

14 All : emphasizing the superlative idea in " bravest " ; they, as Gauls, are assumed 
to be warlike, but the most so of all of them are the Belgians. 

is Farthest away: one might expect absunt (are away) to have a more emphatic 
place, but it is dwarfed in importance by the predominance of the main idea, the effemi- 
nating influences from which the Belgians are said to be free. It is not that they live 
farthest off that is insisted on, but that the civilization of the Province etc., which 
would soften them, comes less in their way. It is to be noticed also that absunt has 
already been anticipated by the construction of cultu and still more by longissime, so 
tfeat when it comes it amounts only to a formal part of the sentence. Thus, — ' ' because 
the civilization etc. of the Province (which would soften them) is farthest from them." 



597] 



ORDER OF WORDS 



395 



from the civilization and refinement 
of the Province, and because they are 
least 1 of all of them subject to the 
visits of traders, 2 and to the (conse- 
quent) importation of such things as 3 
tend to soften 4 ^ their warlike spirit; 
and are also nearest 5 to the Germans, 
who live across the Rhine, 6 and with 
whom they are incessantly 7 at war. 
For the same reason the Helvetians, as 
well, are superior to all the other Gauls 
in valor, because they are engaged in 
almost daily battles with the Germans, 
either defending their own boundaries 
from them, or themselves making war 
on those of the Germans. Of all this 
country, one part — the one which, 
as has been said, the Gauls (proper) 
occupy — begins at the river Rhone. 
Its boundaries are the river Garonne, 
the ocean, said the confines of the Bel- 
gians. It even reaches on the side 
of the Sequani and Helvetians the river 
Rhine. Its general direction is towards 
the north. The Belgians begin at 
the extreme limits of Gaul ; they reach 



provinciae longissime absunt, minime- 
que ad eos mercatores saepe comme- 
ant atque ea quae ad effeminandos 
animos pertinent important, proximl- 
que sunt Germanis, qui trans Rhenum 
incolunt, quibuscum continenter hel- 
ium gerunt. Qua de causa Helvetil 
quoque reliquos G alios virtute praece- 
dunt, quod fere cotldianis proeliis cum 
Germanis contendunt, cum aut suls 
finibus eos prohibent, aut ipsi in eorum 
finibus bellum gerunt. Eorum una 
pars, quam Gallos obtinere dictum 
est, initium capit a flumine Rhodano ; 
continetur Garumna flumine, Oceano, 
finibus Belgarum ; attingit etiam ab 
Sequanls et Helvetils flurnen Rhenum ; 
vergit ad septentriones. Belgae ab 
extremis Galliae finibus oriuntur : 
pertinent ad Inferiorem partem flu- 
minis RhenI ; spectant in septentrio- 
nem et orientem solem. Aqultania 
a Garumna flumine ad_ Pyrenaeos 
montls et earn partem OceanI quae 
est ad Hispaniam pertinet; spectat 
inter occasum solis et septentriones. 



(on this side) as far as the lower part 

of the Rhine. They spread to the northward and eastward. 

Aquitania extends from the Garonne to the Pyrenees, and that part of the 
ocean that lies towards Spain. It runs off westward and northward. 

b. The more important word is never placed last for emphasis. The 
apparent cases of this usage (when the emphasis is not misconceived) are 
cases where a word is added as an afterthought, either real or affected, and 
so has its position not in the sentence to which it is appended, but, as it 
were, in a new one. 



1 Least : made emphatic here by a common Latin order, the chiasmus (§ 598. /) . 

2 Traders : the fourth member of the chiasmus, opposed to cultu and humanitate. 

3 Such things as : the importance of the nature of the importations overshadows the 
fact that they are imported, which fact is anticipated in traders. 

4 Soften : cf . what is said in note 15, p. 394. They are brave because they have 
less to soften them, their native barbarity being taken for granted. 

6 Nearest : the same idiomatic prominence as in note 1 above, but varied by a special 
usage combining chiasmus and anaphora (§ 598./). 

6 Across the Rhine : i.e. and so are perfect savages. 

7 Incessantly : the continuance of the warfare becomes the all-important idea, as 
if it were " and not a day passes in which they are not at war with them." 



396 ORDER OF WORDS [§ 598 

598. The main rules for the Order of Words are as follows : — 

a* In any phrase the determining and most significant word comes 
first : — 

1. Adjective and Noun : — 

omnis homines decet, every man ought (opposed to some who do not). 

Lucius Catillna nobili genere natus fuit, magna, vl et animi et corporis, 
sed ingenio malo pravoque (Sail. Cat. 5), Lucius Catiline was born of a 
noble family, with great force of mind and body, but with a nature 
that was evil and depraved. [Here the adjectives in the first part are 
the emphatic and important words, no antithesis between the nouns 
being as yet thought of ; but in the second branch the noun is meant 
to be opposed to those before mentioned, and immediately takes the 
prominent place, as is seen by the natural English emphasis, thus mak- 
ing a chiasmus. 1 ] 

2. Word with modifying case : — 

quid magis Epaminondam, ThebanSrum imperatorem, quam victoriae The- 
banorum consulere decuit (In v. i. 69), what should Epaminondas, com- 
mander of the Thebans, have aimed at more than the victory of the 
Thebans f 

lacrima nihil citius arescit (id. i. 109), nothing dries quicker than a tear. 

nemo fere laudis cupidus (De Or. i. 14), hardly any one desirous of glory 
(cf. Manil. 7, avidi laudis, eager for glory). 

b* Numeral adjectives, adjectives of quantity, demonstrative, relative, 
and interrogative pronouns and adverbs, tend to precede the word or words 
to which they belong : — 

cum aliqua perturbatione (Off. i. 137), with some disturbance. 

hoc uno praestamus (De Or. i. 32), in this one thing we excel. 

ceterae fere artes, the other arts. 

Note. — This happens because such words are usually emphatic; but often the 
words connected with them are more so, and in such cases the pronouns etc. yield the 
emphatic place : — 

causa aliqua (De Or. i. 250), some case. 

stilus ille tuus (id. i. 257), that well-known style of yours (in an antithesis; see 

passage). [Ille is idiomatic in this sense and position.] 
Romam quae apportata sunt (Verr. iv. 121) , what were carried to Rome (in contrast 
to what remained at Syracuse) . 

c. When sum is used as the Substantive verb (§ 284. 6), it regularly 
stands first, or at any rate before its subject : — 

est virl magni punire sontis (Off. i. 82), it is the duty of a great man to pun- 
ish the guilty. 

1 So called from the Greek letter X (chi), on account of the criss-cross arrangement 
of the words. Thus, gx£ (see / below) . 



§598] O&DER OF WORDS 897 

d. The verb may come first, or have a prominent position, either (1) 
because the idea in it is emphatic ; or (2) because the 'predication of the 
whole statement is emphatic ; or (3) the tense only may be emphatic : — 

(1) dicebat idem Cotta (Off. ii. 59), Cotta used to sat the same thing (opposed 

to others' boasting). 
idem fecit adulescens M. Antonius (id. ii. 49), the same thing was done by 

Mark Antony in his youth. [Opposed to dixi just before.] 
facis amice (Lael. 9), you act kindly. [Cf. amice facis, you are very kind 

(you act kindly).] 

(2) propensior benignitas esse debebit in calamitosos nisi forte erunt dignl 

calamitate (Off. ii. 62), liberality ought to be readier toward the unfortu- 
nate unless perchance they really deserve their misfortune. 
praesertim cum scribat (Panaetius) (id. iii. 8), especially when he does say 
(in his books). [Opposed to something omitted by him.] 

(3) fuimus Troes, fuit Ilium (Aen. ii. 325), we have ceased to be Trojans, Troy 

is now no more. 
loquor autem de communibus amlcitiis (Off. iii. 45), but I am speaking now 
of common friendships. 

e* Often the connection of two emphatic phrases is brought about by 
giving the precedence to the most prominent part of each and leaving the 
less prominent parts to follow in inconspicuous places : — 

plures solent esse causae (Off. i. 28), there are usually several reasons. 
quos amisimus clvis, eos Martis vis perculit (Marc. 17), what fellow-citizens 

we have lost, have been stricken down by the violence of war. 
maximas tibi omnes gratias agimus (id. 33), we all render you the warmest 

thanks. 
haec res unius est propria Caesaris (id. 11), this exploit belongs to Ccesar 

alone. 
obiurgationes etiam non numquam incidunt necessariae (Off. i. 136), occa- 
sions for rebuke also sometimes occur which are unavoidable. 

f. Antithesis between two pairs of ideas is indicated by placing the pairs 
either (1) in the same order (anaphora) or (2) in exactly the opposite order 
(chiasmus) : — 

(1) rerum copia verborum copiam gignit (De Or. iii. 125), abundance of mat- 

ter produces copiousness of expression. 

(2) leges supplicio improbos afficiunt, defendunt ac tuentur bonos (Legg. ii. 

13), the laws visit punishments upon the wicked, but the good they 
defend and protect. 

Note. — Chiasmus is very common in Latin, and often seems in fact the more inarti- 
ficial construction. In an artless narrative one might hear, "The women were all 
drowned , they saved the men." 

non igitur utilitateni amicitia sed iitilitas amicitiam consecuta est (Lael. 51), it is 
not then that friendship has followed upon advantage, but advantage upon 
friendship. [Here the chiasmus is only grammatical, the ideas being in the 
parallel order.] (See also p. 395 : longissime, minime, proximl.) 



398 ORDER OF WORDS [§§ 598, 599 

g. A modifier of a phrase or some part of it is often embodied within 
the phrase (cf . a) : — 

de comnmni hominum memoria (Tusc. i. 59), in regard to the universal 
memory of man. 

h. A favorite order with the poets is the interlocked, by which the attri- 
bute of one pair comes between the parts of the other (synchysis) : — 
et superiecto pavidae natarunt aequore dammae (Hor. Od. i. 2. 11). 

Note. — This is often joined with chiasmus: as, — arma nondum expiatis uncta 
cruoribus (id. ii. 1. 5). 

i. Frequently unimportant words follow in the train of more emphatic 
ones with which they are grammatically connected, and so acquire a promi- 
nence out of proportion to their importance : — 

dictitabat se hortulos aliquos emere velle (Off. iii. 58), he gave out that he 
wanted to buy some gardens. [Here aliqu5s is less emphatic than emere, 
but precedes it on account of the emphasis on hortulos.] 

jm The copula is generally felt to be of so little importance that it may 
come in anywhere where it sounds well ; but usually under cover of more 
emphatic words : — 

consul ego quaesivi, cum vos mihi essetis in cSnsilio (Rep. iii. 28), as consul 

I held an investigation in which you attended me in council. 
falsum est id totum (id. ii. 28), that is all false. 

7c. Many expressions have acquired an invariable order : — 

res ptiblica ; populus Romanus ; honoris causa ; pace tantl virl. 

Note. — These had, no doubt, originally an emphasis which required such an 
arrangement, but in the course of time have changed their shade of meaning. Thus, 
senatus populusque Romanus originally stated with emphasis the official bodies, but. 
became fixed so as to be the only permissible form of expression. 

Z. The Romans had a fondness for emphasizing persons, so that a name 
or a pronoun often stands in an emphatic place : — 

[dixit] venalis quidem se hortos non habere (Off. iii. 58), [said] that he didn't 
have any gardens for sale, to be sure. 

m* Kindred words often come together (Jigura etymologicd) : — 
ita sensim sine sensti aetas senescit (Cat. M. 38), thus gradually, without 
being perceived, mail's life grows old. 

Special Rules 
599. The following are special rules of arrangement : — 

a. The negative precedes the word it especially affects ; but if it belongs 
to no one word in particular, it generally precedes the verb ; if it is espe- 
cially emphatic, it begins the sentence. (See example, 598./. n.) 



§§599-601] STKUCTUEE OF THE PERIOD 399 

b. Itaque regularly comes first in its sentence or clause; enim, autem, 
vero, quoque, never first, but usually second, sometimes third if the second 
word is emphatic ; quidem never first, but after the emphatic word ; igitur 
usually second ; fie . . . quidem include the emphatic word or words. 

c. Inquam, inquit, are always used parenthetically, following one or more 
words. So often credo, opinor, and in poetry sometimes precor. 

d. (1) Prepositions (except tenus and versus) regularly precede their 
nouns ; (2) but a monosyllabic preposition is often placed between a noun 
and its adjective or limiting genitive : — 

quern ad modum ; quam ob rem ; magno cum metu ; omnibus cum copils ; 
nulla in re (cf. § 598. i). 

e. In the arrangement of clauses, the Relative clause more often comes 
first in Latin, and usually contains the antecedent noun : — 

quos amisimus civis, eos Martis vis perculit (Marc. 17), those citizens whom 
we have lost, etc. 

/• Personal or demonstrative pronouns tend to stand together in the 
sentence : — 

cum vos mihi essetis in consilio (Rep. iii. 28), when you attended me in 
counsel. 

Structure of the Period 

600. Latin, unlike modern languages, expresses the relation of words to each other 
by inflection rather than by position. Hence its structure not only admits of great 
variety in the arrangement of words, but is especially favorable to that form of sen- 
tence which is called a Period. In a period, the sense is expressed by the sentence as a 
whole, and is held in suspense till the delivery of the last word. 

An English sentence does not often exhibit this form of structure. It was imitated, 
sometimes with great skill and beauty, by many of the earlier writers of English prose ; 
but its effect is better seen in poetry, as in the following passage : — 

High on a throne of royal state, which far 
Outshone the wealth of Ornrus and of Ind, 
Or where the gorgeous East with richest hand 
Showers on her kings barbaric pearl and gold, 
Satan exalted sat. — Paradise Lost, ii. 1-5. 

But in argument or narrative, the best English writers more commonly give short 
clear sentences, each distinct from the rest, and saying one thing by itself. In Latin, 
on the contrary, the story or argument is viewed as a whole ; and the logical relation 
among all its parts is carefully indicated. 

601. In the structure of the Period, the following rules are to 
be observed : — 

a. In general the main subject or object is put in the main clause, not 
in a subordinate one : — 

Hannibal cum recensuisset auxilia Gades profectus est (Liv. xxi. 21), when 
Hannibal had reviewed the auxiliaries, he set out for Cadiz. 



400 ORDER OF WORDS [§001 

VolscI exiguam spem in armls, alia undique abscissa, cum tentassent, prae- 
ter cetera adversa, loco quoque inlquo ad pugnam congressl, inlquiore 
ad fugam, cum ab omnl parte caederentur, ad preces a certamine vers! 
dedito imperatore traditisque arinis, sub iugum missl, cum singulis 
vestimentis, Ignominiae cladisque pleni dlmittuntur (Liv. iv. 10). [Here 
the main fact is the return of the Volscians. But the striking circum- 
stances of the surrender etc., which in English would be detailed in a 
number of brief independent sentences, are put into the several subor- 
dinate clauses within the main clause so that the passage gives a com- 
plete picture in one sentence.] 

b* Clauses are usually arranged in the order of prominence in the mind 
of the speaker ; so, usually, cause before result ; purpose, manner, and the 
like, before the act. 

c. In coordinate clauses, the copulative conjunctions are frequently 
omitted (asyndeton). In such cases the connection is made clear by some 
antithesis indicated by the position of words. 

d* A change of subject, when required, is marked by the introduction 
of a pronoun, if the new subject has already been mentioned. But such 
change is often purposely avoided by a change in structure, — the less 
important being merged in the more important by the aid of participles 
or of subordinate phrases : — 

quern ut barbari incendium effugisse viderunt, tells eminus missis inter- 
fecerunt (Nep. Ale. 10), ivhen the barbarians saw that he had escaped, 
they threw darts at him at long range and killed him. 
celeriter confecto negotio, in hiberna legiones redtixit (B. G. vi. 3), the mat- 
ter was soon finished, and he led the legions, etc. 

e. So the repetition of a noun, or the substitution of a pronoun for it, 
is avoided unless a different case is required : — 

dolorem sinonpotuero frangere occultabo (Phil. xii. 21), if I cannot conquer 
the pain, I will hide it. [Cf . if I cannot conquer I will hide the pain.~\ 

f. The Romans were careful to close a period with an agreeable succes- 
sion of long and short syllables. Thus, — 

quod scls nihil prodest, quod nescis multum obest (Or. 166), what you know 
is of no use, what you do not know does great harm. 

Note. — In rhetorical writing, particularly in oratory, the Romans, influenced by 
their study of the Greek orators, gave more attention to this matter than in other 
forms of composition. Quintilian (ix. 4. 72) lays down the general rule that a clause 
should not open with the beginning of a verse or close with the end of one. 



§§ 602, 603] QUANTITY OF VOWELS 401 



PEOSODT 

QUANTITY 

602. The poetry of the Indo-European people seems originally to have been some- 
what like our own, depending on accent for its metre and disregarding the natural 
quantity of syllables. The Greeks, however, developed a form of poetry which, like 
music, pays close attention to the natural quantity of syllables ; and the Komans bor- 
rowed their metrical forms in classical times from the Greeks. Hence Latin poetry 
does not depend, like ours, upon accent and rhyme; but is measured, like musical 
strains, by the length of syllables. Especially does it differ from our verse in not 
regarding the prose accent of the words, but substituting for that an entirely differ- 
ent system of metrical accent or ictus (see § 611. a). This depends upon the character 
of the measure used, falling at regular intervals of time on a long syllable or its equiva- 
lent. Each syllable is counted as either long or short in Quantity ; and a long syllable 
is generally reckoned equal in length to two short ones (for exceptions, see § 608. c-e). 

The quantity of radical (or stem) syllables — as of short a in pater or of long a in 
mater — can be learned only by observation and practice, unless determined by the 
general rules of quantity. Most of these rules are only arbitrary formulas devised to 
assist the memory; the syllables being long or short because the ancients pronounced 
them so. The actual practice of the Romans in regard to the quantity of syllables is 
ascertained chiefly from the usage of the poets ; but the ancient grammarians give some 
assistance, and in some inscriptions long vowels are distinguished in various ways, — 
by the apex, for instance, or by doubling (§ 10. e. n.). 

Since Roman poets borrow very largely from the poetry and mythology of the 
Greeks, numerous Greek words, especially proper names, make an important part of 
Latin poetry. These words are generally employed in accordance with the Greek, 
and not the Latin, laws of quantity. Where these laws vary in any important point, 
the variations will be noticed in the rules below. 

GENERAL RULES 

603. The following are General Rules of Quantity (cf. §§ 9-11) : 

Quantity of Vowels 
a. Vowels. A vowel before another vowel or h is short : as, via, traho. 
Exceptions. — 1. In the genitive form -ius, I is long: as, utrius, nullius. It 
is, however, sometimes short in verse (§ 113. c). 

2. In the genitive and dative singular of the fifth declension, e is long between 
two vowels : as, diei; otherwise usually short, as in fidei, rSi, sp&i. 

Note. — It was once long in these also : as, plenu 8 fidei (Ennius, at the end of a hex- 
ameter). A is also long before i in the old genitive of the first declension: as, aulai. 

3. In the conjugation of fI5, i is long except when followed by er. Thus, fid, 
fiebam, flam, but fieri, fierem ; so also fit (§ 606. a. 3). 

4. In many Greek words the vowel in Latin represents a long vowel or diph* 
thong, and retains its original long quantity : as, Troes (Tpwes), Thalia (QdXeia), 
heroas (^pwas), aer (drjp). 



402 PROSODY: QUANTITY [§603 

Note. — But many Greek words are more or less Latinized in this respect: as, 
Academia, chorla, Malea, platea. 

5. In dius, in eheu usually, and sometimes in Diana and one, the first vowel is 
long. 

b. Diphthongs. A Diphthong is long : as, foedus, cui, 1 aula. 
Exception. — The preposition prae in compounds is generally shortened before 

a vowel: as, prae-ustis (Aen. vii. 524), prae-eunte (id. v. 186). 

Note. — U following q, s, or g, does not make a diphthong with a following vowel 
(see § 5. n. 2). For a-i5, ma-ior, pe-ior, etc., see § 11. d and n. 

c. Contraction. A vowel formed by contraction (crasis) is long : as, nil, 
from nihil ; cogo for fco-ago ; malo for ma-volo. 

Note.— Two vowels of different syllables may be^run together without full con- 
traction (synizesis, § 642) : as, deinde (for deinde), meos (for meos) ; and often two 
syllables are united by Synseresis (§ 642) without contraction : as when panetibus is 
pronounced paryetlbus. 

d. A vowel before ns, nf , gn, is long : as, insto, Infans, signum. 

Quantity of Syllables 

e. A syllable is long if it contains a long vowel or a diphthong : as, 
ca-rus, o-men, foe-dus. 

/. Position. A syllable is long by position if its vowel, though short, is 
followed by two consonants or a double consonant: as, adventus, cortex. 

But if the two consonants are a mute followed by 1 or r the syllable may 
be either long or short (common) ; as, alacris or alacris ; patris or patris. 

Vowels should be pronounced long or short in accordance with their nat- 
ural quantity without regard to the length of the syllable by position. 

Note 1. — The rules of Position do not, in general, apply to final vowels before a. 
word beginning with two consonants. 

Note 2. — A syllable is long if its vowel is followed by consonant i (except in 
biiugis, quadriiugis) : see § 11. d. 

Note 3. — Compounds of iacio, though written with one i, commonly retain the 
long vowel of the prepositions with which they are compounded, as if before a con- 
sonant, and, if the vowel of the preposition is short, the first syllable is long by posi- 
tion on the principle of § 11. e. 

obicis hosti (at the end of a hexameter, Aen. iv. 549). 
inicit et saltu (at the beginning of a hexameter, Aen. ix. 552) . 
proice tela manii (at the beginning of a hexameter, Aen. vi. 836). 
Later poets sometimes shorten the preposition in trisyllabic forms, and preposi. 
tions ending in a vowel are sometimes contracted as if the verb began with a vowel : 
-(1) cur an|nos obi|cis (Claud, iv C. H. 264). 
(2) reice ca|pellas (Eel. iii. 96, at end). 
Note 4. — The y or w sound resulting from synseresis (§ 642) has the effect of a con- 
sonant in making position: as, abietis (abyetis), fluviorum (fluvyorum). Conversely, 
when the semivowel becomes a vowel, position is lost: as, siluae, for silvae. 

1 Rarely dissyllabic cui (as Mart. i. 104. 22). 



§604] FINAL SYLLABLES 403 

FINAL SYLLABLES 
604. The Quantity of Final Syllables is as follows : — 
a. Monosyllables ending in a vowel are long : as, me, tu, hi, ne. 

1. The attached particles -n&, -qu&, -ve, -cS, -ptS, and re- (r&d-) are short; se- 
(sed-) and di- are long. Thus, secedit, seditio, exercitumquS reducit, dimitto. But 
re- is often long in religid (relligiS), retuli (rettuli), repuli (reppuli). 

h. Nouns and adjectives of one syllable are long : as, sol, 6s (oris), bos, 
par, vas (vasis), ver, vis. 

Exceptions. — cor, fel, l&c, mSl, 5s (ossis), vas (vaMis), vir, t5t, qu5t. 

c. Most monosyllabic Particles are short : as, an, in, cis, nee. But eras, 
cur, en, non, quin, sin — with adverbs in c : as, hie, hue, sic — are long. 

d. Final a in words declined by cases is short, except in the ablative sin- 
gular of the first declension ; in all other words final a is long. Thus, ea 
stella (nominative), cum ea stella (ablative) ; frustra, voca (imperative), 
postea, triginta. 

Exceptions. — eia, it&, quia\ puta (suppose) ; and, in late use, triginta etc. 

e. Final e is short : as in nube, ducite, saepe\ 

Exceptions. — Final e is long — 1. In adverbs formed from adjectives of the 
first and second declension, with others of like form : as, alte, longe, misere, aperte, 
saepissime. So fere, ferme. 

But it is short in benS, malS ; Inferng, supernS. 

2. In nouns of the fifth declension: as, fide (also fame), facie, hodie, quare 
(qua re). 

3. In Greek neuters plural of the second declension : as, cete ; and in some 
other Greek words : Phoebe, Circe, Andromache, etc. 

4. In the imperative singular of the second conjugation : as, vide. 
But sometimes cavS, habe, tac5, valS, vid5 (cf. § 629. b. 1). 

/• Final i is long : as in turri, fill, audi. 

Exceptions. — Final i is common in mini, tibi, sibi, ibi, ubi ; and short in nisi, 
quasi, sicuti, cui (when making two syllables), and in Greek vocatives : as, Alexi. 

g. Final o is common : but long in datives and ablatives ; also in nouns 
of the third declension. It is almost invariably long in verbs before the 
time of Ovid. 

Exceptions. — cit5, mod5 (dummod5), imm5, profect5, eg5, du5, ced5 (the impera- 
tive); so sometimes oct5, ilico, etc., particularly in later writers. 

h. Final u is long. Final y is short. 

i. Final as, es, os, are long ; final is, us, ys, are short : as, nefas, rupes, 
servos (accusative), hon5s ; hostis, amicus, Tethys. 



404 PROSODY: QUANTITY [§§604-606 

Exceptions. — 1. as is short in Greek plural accusatives : as, lampadas ; and 
in anas. 

2. es is short in the nominative of nouns of the third declension (lingual) hav- 
ing a short vowel in the stem 1 : as, miles (-itis), obses (-idis), — except abies, aries, 
paries, pes ; in the present of esse (es, ades) ; in the preposition penes, and in the 
plural of Greek nouns : as, heroes, lampades. 

3. os is short in compos, impos ; in the Greek nominative ending : as, barbitos ; 
in the old nominative of the second declension : as, servos (later servus). 

4. is in plural cases is long : as in bonis, nobis, vobis, omnis (accusative plural). 

5. is is long in the verb forms fis, sis, vis (with quivis etc.), velis, malls, n51is, 
edis ; in the second person singular of the present indicative active in the fourth 
conjugation: as, audis ; and sometimes in the forms in -eris (future perfect indica- 
tive or perfect subjunctive). 

6. us is long in the genitive singular and nominative, accusative, and vocative 
plural of the fourth declension ; and in nouns of the third declension having u 
(long) in the stem: as, virtus (-utis), incus (-udis). But pecus, -udis. 

jm Of other final syllables, those ending in a single consonant are short. 
Thus, amat, amatur ; donee, fac, prociil, iubar. 

Exceptions. — hie (also hie) ; allec ; the ablatives illoc, etc. ; certain adverbs in 
-c : as, illic, istuc ; lien, and some Greek nouns : as, aer, aether, crater. 

Perfects and Perfect Participles 

605. Perfects and Perfect Participles of two syllables have the 

first syllable long: as, iuvi, iutum (iuvo), vidi, visum (video); fugi 

(fugio); veni (venio). 

Exceptions. — bibi, dedi, fidi, scidi, steti, stiti, tulf; citum, datum, itum, litum, 
quitum, ratum, rutum, satum, situm, statum. In some compounds of st5, statum 
is found (long), as praestatum. 

a* In reduplicated perfects the vowel of the reduplication is short ; the 
vowel of the following syllable is, also, usually short : as, cecidi (cado), 
didici (disco), pupugi (pungo), cucurrl (curro), tetendi (tendo), momordi (mor~ 
deo). But cecidi from caedo, pepedi from pedo. 

Derivatives 

606. Rules for the Quantity of Derivatives are : — 

a. Forms from the same stem have the same quantity : as, amo, ama- 
visti; genus, generis. 

Exceptions. — 1. bos, lar, mas, par, pes, sal, — also arbos, — have a long vowel 
in the nominative, though the stem-vowel is short (cf. genitive bovis etc.). 

1 The quantity of the stem-vowel may be seen in the genitive singular. 



§§ 606, 607] RHYTHM 405 

2. Nouns in -or, genitive -5ris, have the vowel shortened before the final r : as, 
honor. (But this shortening is comparatively late, so that in early Latin these 
nominatives are often found long.) 

3. Verb-forms with vowel originally long regularly shorten it before final m, 
r, ort: as, araem, amer, dicerSr, amet (compare amemus), diceret, audit, fit. 

Note. — The final syllable in t of the perfect was long in old Latin, but is short in 
the classic period. 

4. A few long stem-syllables are shortened : as, acer, acerbus. So de-iSro and 
pe-iero, weakened from iuro. 

b* Forms from the same root often show inherited variations of vowel 
quantity (see § 17) : as, dico (cf . maledicus) ; duco (dux, diicis) ; fido (perfidus) ; 
vox, vocis (v5co); lex, legis (lego). 

c. Compounds retain the quantity of the words which compose them : 
as, oc-cido (cado), oc-cido (caedo), in-Iquus (aequus). 

Note. — Greek words compounded with irpo have o short: as, propheta, prologus. 
Some Latin compounds of pr5 have o short : as, proficiscor, profiteor. Compounds with 
ne vary: as, nefas, nego, nequeS, nequam. 

RHYTHM 

607. The essence of Rhythm in poetry is the regular recurrence of syllables 
pronounced with more stress than those intervening. To produce this effect in its 
perfection, precisely equal times should occur between the recurrences of the stress. 
But, in the application of rhythm to words, the exactness of these intervals is sacri- 
ficed somewhat to the necessary length of the words; and, on the other hand, the 
words are forced somewhat in their pronunciation, to produce more nearly the proper 
intervals of time. In different languages these adaptations take place in different 
degrees ; one language disregarding more the intervals of time, another the pronun- 
ciation of the words. 

The Greek language early developed a very strict rhythmical form of poetry, in 
which the intervals of time were all-important. The earliest Latin, on the other hand, 
— as in the Saturnian and Fescennine verse, — was not so restricted. But the purely 
metrical forms were afterwards adopted from the Greek, and supplanted the native 
forms of verse. Thus the Latin poetry with which we have to do follows for the most 
part Greek rules, which require the formal division of words (like music) into measures 
of equal times, technically called Feet. The strict rhythm was doubtless more closely 
followed in poetry that was sung than in that which was declaimed or intoned. In 
neither language, however, is the time perfectly preserved, even in single measures ; 
and there are some cases in which the regularity of the time between the ictuses is 
disturbed. 

The Greeks and Romans distinguished syllables of two kinds in regard to the time 
required for their pronunciation, a long syllable having twice the metrical value of a 
short one. But it must not be supposed that all long syllables were of equal length, 
or even that in a given passage each long had just twice the length of the contiguous 
shorts. The ratio was only approximate at best, though necessarily more exact in 
singing than in recitation. Nor are longs and shorts the only forms of syllables that 
are found. In some cases a long syllable was protracted, so as to have the time of 
three or even of four shorts, and often one long or two shorts were pronounced in less 
than their proper time, though they were perhaps distinguishable in time from one 



406 PROSODY : RHYTHM [§§ 607, 608 

short (see §608. c, d). Sometimes a syllable naturally short seems to have been 
slightly prolonged, so as to represent a long, though in most (not all) cases the appar- 
ent irregularity can be otherwise explained. In a few cases, also, a pause takes the 
place of one or more syllables to fill out the required length of the measure. This 
could, of course, take place only at the end of a word: hence the importance of 
Caesura and Diaeresis in prosody (§ 611. b, c). 

Measures 

608. Rhythm consists of the division of musical sound into 
equal intervals of time called Measures or Feet. 

The most natural division of musical time is into measures con- 
sisting of either two or three equal parts. But the ancients also 
distinguished measures of five equal parts. 

Note. — The divisions of musical time are marked by a stress of voice on one or 
the other part of the measure. This stress is called the Ictus (beat), or metrical accent 
(see §611. a). 

a. The unit of length in Prosody is one short syllable. This is called 
a Mora. It is represented by the sign \j, or in musical notation by the 
eighth note or quaver (|*). 

b* A long syllable is regularly equal to two morse, and is represented 
by the sign _, or by the quarter note or crotchet (i*). 

c. A long syllable may be protracted, so as to occupy the time of three 
or four morse. Such a syllable, if equal to three mora?, is represented 
by the sign i__ (or dotted quarter |* # ) ; if equal to four, by l_j (or the half 
note or minim, f^). 

d* A long syllable may be contracted, so as to take practically the time 
of a short one. Such a syllable is sometimes represented by the sign >. 

e. A short syllable may be contracted so as to occupy less than one mora. 

/. A pause sometimes occurs at the end of a verse or a series of verses, 
to fill up the time. A pause of one mora in a measure is indicated by the 
sign A ; one of two morse by the sign A . 

g* One or more syllables are sometimes placed before the proper begin- 
ning of the measure. Such syllables are called an Anacrusis or prelude. 1 

The anacrusis is regularly equal to the unaccented part of the measure. 

1 The same thing occurs in modern poetry, and in modern music any unaccented 
syllables at the beginning are treated as an anacrusis, i.e. they make an incomplete 
measure before the first bar. This was not the case in ancient music. The ancients 
seem to have treated any unaccented syllable at the beginning as belonging to the fol- 
lowing accented ones, so as to make with them a foot or measure. Thus it would seem 
that there was an original form of Indo-European poetry which was iambic in its 
structure, or which, at least, accented the second syllable rather than the first. 



§ 609] MEASURES 407 

609. The feet most frequently employed in Latin verse, to- 
gether with their musical notation, are the following : — 

a. Triple or Unequal Measures (f) 1 

1 . Trochee (-L \j = P /•) : as, regis. 

2. Iambus (^ J- = P i*): as, duces. 

3. Tribrach 2 (w u u = I* 1* f) : as, hominis. 

b. Double or Equal Measures (f) 

1. Dactyl ( \j \j = P I* (•) : as, consults. 

2. Anapaest (\j \j = P P /•): as, monitos. 

3. Spondee ( = P P) : as, reges. 

c. Six-timed Measures (f) 

1. Ionic a mdiore ( w w = P P f* I*) : as, confecerat. 

2. Ionic a minor e (w w = I* 1^ I* /*) : as, retulissent. 

3. Choriambus (_ w w ' = f P P I*) : as, contuleranL 

d. Quinary or Hemiolig 8 Measures (|) 

1. Cretic ( w = P /• i*) : as, consules. 

2. Paeon primus ( w ^ ^ = j* (• l* ]•) : as, consulihus. 

3. Paeon quartus (kj \j \j = |* I* |* /•) : as, itineri. 

4. Bacchius (^ =(•(•(•): as, amlcos. 

1 Called diplasic, the two parts (Thesis and Arsis) being in the ratio of 2 to 1. 

2 Not found as a fundamental foot, but only as the resolution of a Trochee or Iambus. 

3 Called hemiolic, the two parts being in the ratio of 1 to 1|, or of 2 to 3. 



408 PKOSODY: RHYTHM [§609 

Note. — Several compound feet are mentioned by the grammarians, viz. Pyrrhic 

(^ \j); Amphibrach (\j \y); Antibacchius ( w); Proceleusmatic (kj w w \j); 

the Molossus ( ); the 2d and 3d Pseon, having a long syllable in the 2d or 3d 

place, with three short ones ; 1st, 2d, 3d, and 4th Epitritus, having a short syllable in 
the 1st, 2d, 3d, or 4th place, with three long ones. 



Irrational Feet 

e. Feet with these apparent quantities do not always occupy equal time, 
but may be contracted or prolonged to suit the series in which they occur. 
They are then called irrational, because the thesis and arsis do not have 
their normal ratio. 1 Such are : — 



Irrational Spondee 

(in place of a Tr< 

(in place of an Iambus) > 



(in place of a Trochee) -L > 1 J | 



Cyclic Dactyl (in place of a Trochee) : 

JL ^ or -<_, kj = J. Ji Ji or J. J^ J 

Cyclic Anapaest (in place of an Iambus) : 

v^Jlorww^ = J:J: J. or J* J Jl 

The apparent dactyl > i u, as a substitute for an iambus, and the 
apparent anapaest kj ^ >, as a substitute for a trochee, occur frequently 
in the dramatic writers. 

Note. — Narrative poetry was written for rhythmical recitation, or chant, with 
instrumental accompaniment ; and Lyrical poetry for rhythmical melody, or singing. 
It must be borne in mind that in ancient music — which in this differs widely from 
modern — the rhythm of the melody was identical with the rhythm of the text. The 
lyric poetry was to be sung ; the poet was musician and composer, as well as author. 
To this day a poet is said conventionally to " sing." 

Thus a correct understanding of the rhythmical structure of the verse gives us the 
time, though not the tune, to which it was actually sung. The exact time, however, 
as indicated by the succession of long and short syllables, was varied according to 
certain laws of so-called "Rhythmic," as will be explained below. In reading ancient 
verse it is necessary to bear in mind not only the variations in the relative length of 
syllables, but the occasional pause necessary to fill out the measure ; and to remember 
that the rhythmical accent is the only one of importance, though the words should be 
distinguished carefully, and the sense preserved. Poetry should not be scanned, but 
read metrically. 

1 It seems probable that both thesis and arsis of an irrational foot were affected by 
the necessity of preserving the rhythmical time of the foot. 



§§ 610, 611] THE MUSICAL ACCENT 409 

Substitution 

610. In many cases measures of the same time may be substi- 
tuted for each other, a long syllable taking the place of two short 
ones, or two short syllables the place of a long one. 

In the former case the measure is said to be contracted; in the 
latter, to be resolved : — 

a. A Spondee ( ) may take the place of a Dactyl (_ \j ^) or an 

Anapaest (^ \j ); and a Tribrach (v^ ^ ^) may take the place of a 

Trochee (_ w) or an Iambus (w _). The optional substitution of one 
long syllable for two short ones is represented by the sign ct^. 

b. When a long syllable having the Ictus (§ 611. a) is resolved, the 
ictus properly belongs to both the resulting short syllables ; but for con- 
venience the mark of accent is placed on the first : — 

nunc ex|periar | sftn e a|ceto | tlbi cor | acr e in | p£cto|re. — PI. Bac. 405. 

J- >\6 kj >\jLKj\-L>\^KjKj\JL>\-L^\±iA 



The Musical Accent 

611. That part of the measure which receives the stress of voice 
(the musical accent) is called the Thesis ; the unaccented part is 
called the Arsis. 1 

a. The stress of voice laid upon the Thesis is called the Ictus (beat). 
It is marked thus : J- \j \u . 

b* The ending of a word within a measure is called Caesura. When 
this coincides with a rhetorical pause, it is called the Caesura of the verse, 
and is of main importance as affecting the melody or rhythm. 

c. The coincidence of the end of a word with that of a measure is 
called Diaeresis. 

1 The Thesis signifies properly the putting down (dtcris, from tIOtj/jll, put, place) of 
the foot in beating time, in the march or dance (" downward beat "), and the Arsis the 
raising (&p<ns, from aeipu, raise) of the foot (" upward beat"). By the Latin gram- 
marians these terms were made to mean, respectively, the ending and the beginning of 
a measure. By a misunderstanding which has prevailed till recently, since the time of 
Bentley, their true signification has been reversed. They will here be used in accord- 
ance with their ancient meaning, as has now become more common. This metrical 
accent, recurring at regular intervals of time, is what constitutes the essence of the 
rhythm of poetry as distinguished from prose, and should be constantly kept in mind. 
The error mentioned arose from applying to trochaic and dactylic verse a definition 
which was true only of iambic or anapaestic. 



410 PROSODY: VERSIFICATION [§612 

VERSIFICATION 

THE VERSE 

612. A single line of poetry — that is, a series of feet set in a 
recognized order — is called a Verse. 1 

Note. — Most of the common verses originally consisted of two series (hemistichs), 
but the joint between them is often obscured. It is marked in Iambic and Trochaic 
Tetrameter by the Diseresis, in Dactylic Hexameter by the Caesura. 

a. A verse lacking a syllable at the end is called Catalectic, that is, hav- 
ing a pause to fill the measure ; when the end syllable is not lacking, the 
verse is called Acatalectic, and has no such pause. 

b* A final syllable, regularly short, is sometimes lengthened before a 
pause : 2 it is then said to be long by Diastole : — 

nostror MWl obruimur, — oriturque miserrima caedes. — Aen. ii. 411. 

c. The last syllable of any verse may be indifferently long or short 
(syllaba anceps). 

Scansion and Elision 

d* To divide the verse into its appropriate measures, according to the 
rules of quantity and versification, is called scanning or scansion (scansio, 
a climbing or advance by steps, from scando). 

Note. — In reading verse rhythmically, care should be taken to preserve the meas- 
ure or time of the syllables, but at the same time not to destroy or confuse the words 
themselves, as is often done in scanning. 

e. In scanning, a vowel or diphthong at the end of a word (unless an 
interjection) is partially suppressed when the next word begins with a vowel 
or with h. This is called Elision (bruising). 2. 

In reading it is usual entirely to suppress elided syllables. Strictly, how- 
ever, they should be sounded lightly. 

1 The word Verse (versus) signifies a turning back, i.e. to begin again in like 
manner, as opposed to Prose (prorsus or prdversus) , which means straight ahead. 

2 This usage is comparatively rare, most cases where it appears to be found being 
caused by the retention of an originally long quantity. 

3 The practice of Elision is followed in Italian and French poetry, and is sometimes 
adopted in English, particularly in the older poets: — 

T' inveigle and invite th' unwary sense. — Comus 538. 

In early Latin poetry a final syllable ending in s often loses this letter even before a 
consonant (cf . § 15. 7) : — 

senio confectu 8 quiescit. — Enn. (Cat. M. 14). 



§§612-615] DACTYLIC HEXAMETER 411 

Note. — Elision is sometimes called by the Greek name Synaloepha {smearing). 
Rarely a syllable is elided at the end of a verse when the next verse begins with a 
vowel : this is called Synapheia (binding) . 

/. A final m, with the preceding vowel, is suppressed in like manner 
when the next word begins with a vowel or h: this is called Ecthlipsis 
(squeezing out) : — 

monstr MWl horrend wm , Inform 6 , ingens, cui lumen ademptum. 

— Aen. iii. 658. 

Note 1. — Final m has a feeble nasal sound, so that its partial suppression before 
the initial vowel of the following word was easy. 

Note 2. — The monosyllables do, dem, spe, spem, sim, sto, stem, qui (plural), and 
monosyllabic interjections are never elided ; nor is an iambic word elided in dactylic 
verse. Elision is often evaded by skilful collocation of words. 

g. Elision is sometimes omitted when a word ending in a vowel has a spe- 
cial emphasis, or is succeeded by a pause. This omission is called Hiatus 
(gaping). 

Note. — The final vowel is sometimes shortened in such cases. 

FORMS OF VERSE 

613. A verse receives its name from its dominant or funda- 
mental foot : as, Dactylic, Iambic, Trochaic, Anapcestic; and from 
the number of measures (single or double) which it contains: 
as, Hexameter, Tetrameter, Trimeter, Dimeter. 

Note. — Trochaic, Iambic, and Anapaestic verses are measured not by single feet, 
but by pairs (dipodia) f so that six Iambi make a Trimeter. 

614. A Stanza, or Strophe, consists of a definite number of 
verses ranged in a fixed order. 

Many stanzas are named after some eminent poet: as, Sapphic 
(from Sappho), Alcaic (from Aleseus), Archilochian (from Archilo- 
ehus), Horatian (from Horace), and so on. 

Dactylic Verse 
Dactylic Hexameter 

615. The Dactylic Hexameter, or Heroic Verse, consists theo- 
retically of six dactyls. It may be represented thus : — 

ircrircriricnrcrircrirM 



412 PROSODY: VERSIFICATION [§615 

Note. — The last foot is usually said to be a spondee, but is in reality a trochee 
standing for a dactyl, since the final syllable is not measured. 

a. For any foot, except the fifth, a spondee may be substituted. 

b. Rarely a spondee is found in the fifth foot ; the verse is then called 
spondaic and usually ends with a word of four syllables. 

Thus in Eel. iv. 49 the verse ends with incrementum. 

c. The hexameter has regularly one principal ccesura — sometimes two 

almost always accompanied by a pause in the sense. 

1. The principal caesura is usually after the thesis (less commonly in the arsis) 
of the third foot, dividing the verse into two parts in sense and rhythm. See 
examples in d. 

2. It may also be after the thesis (less commonly in the arsis) of the fourth foot. 
In this case there is often another caesura in the second foot, so that the verse 
is divided into three parts: — 

' parte ferox || ar|densqu e ocu|lfs || et | sibila | c611a. — Aen. v. 277. 

Note. — Often the only indication of the principal among a number of caesuras is 
the break in the sense. 

A caesura occurring after the first syllable of a foot is called masculine. A caesura 
occurring after the second syllable of a foot is called feminine (as in the fifth foot of 
the third and fourth verses in d) . A caesura may also be found in any foot of the verse, 
but a proper cassural pause could hardly occur in the first or sixth. 

When the fourth foot ends a word, the break (properly a diaeresis) is sometimes 
improperly called bucolic csesura, from its frequency in pastoral poetry. 

d. The first seven verses of the iEneid, divided according to the fore- 
going rules, will appear as follows. The principal caesura in each verse is 
marked by double lines : — 

Arma vi|rumque ca|no || Tro|iae qui | primus ab | oris 
Itali|am fa|to profii|gus || La|viniaque | venit 
Htora, | mult wm il|l e et ter|ris || iacjtatus et | alto 
vi supe|rum || saejvae rnemo|rem Iu|nonis ob | iram ; 
multa quo|qu e et beljlo pasjsus || dum | conderet | urbem, 
Infer |retque de|os Lati|o, || genus | unde La|tlnum, 
Alba]nique pajtres, || at|qu e altae | moenia ) Romae. 

1. The feminine ccesura is seen in the following: — 
Dis geni|tl potulere : || te|nent medi| a omnia] silvae. — Aen. vi. 131. 

Note. — The Hexameter is thus illustrated in English verse : — 

Over the sea, past Crete, on the Syrian shore to the southward, 
Dwells in the well-tilled lowland a dark-haired iEthiop people, 
Skilful with needle and loom, and the arts of the dyer and carver, 
Skilful, but feeble of heart ; for they know not the lords of Olympus, 
Lovers of men ; neither broad-browed Zeus, nor Pallas Athene, 
Teacher of wisdom to heroes, bestower of might in the battle ; 
Share not the cunning of Hermes, nor list to the songs of Apollo, 
Fearing the stars of the sky, and the roll of the blue salt water. 

— Kingsley's Andromeda. 



§§616,617] ELEGIAC STANZA 413 

Elegiac Stanza 

616. The Elegiac Stanza consists of two verses, — a Hexame- 
ter followed by a Pentameter. 1 

The Pentameter verse is the same as the Hexameter, except that it 
omits the last half of the third foot and of the sixth foot : — 

-L- w|i- wC? I -L T, || JL v kj | -L O sj | J- T> 

rc/ircj*ir r ircj*ira*if 

a. The Pentameter verse is therefore to be scanned as two half -verses, the 
second of which always consists of two dactyls followed by a single syllable. 

b. The Pentameter has no regular Caesura; but the first half-verse 
must always end with a word (diceresis, § 611. c), which is followed by a 
pause to complete the measure. 2 

c. The following verses will illustrate the forms of the Elegiac Stanza : — 

cum siibit | illijus || tris|tissima | noctis i|mago 

qua mini | supre|mum A || tempus in | urbe fu|it, A 

cum repe|to noc|tem || qua | tot mihi | car a re|llqui, 

labitur | ex ocu|Hs A || nunc quoque | gutta me|is. A 

iam prope | lux ade|rat || qua | me dis|cedere | Caesar 
fmibus | extre|mae A || iusserat | Ausoni|ae. A 

— Ov. Trist. i. 3. 

Note. — The Elegiac Stanza differs widely in character from hexameter verse (of 
which it is a mere modification) by its division into Distichs, each of which must have 
its own sense complete. It is employed in a great variety of compositions, — epistolary, 
amatory, and mournful, — and was especially a favorite of the poet Ovid. It has been 
illustrated in English verse, imitated from the German : — 

In the Hex|ameter | rises || the | fountain's | silvery | column ; 
In the Pen|tameter | aye || falling in | melody | back. 

Other Dactylic Verses 

617. Other dactylic verses or half- verses are occasionally used 
by the lyric poets. 

1 Called pentameter by the old grammarians, who divided it, formally, into five 
feet (two dactyls or spondees, a spondee, and two anapaests) , as follows : — 

||_^w|__v^^|_||__|^w_|^^_|| 

2 The time of this pause, however, may be filled by the protraction of the preced- 
mg syllable : — 

J-kjkj\JLv\j\lLi\\JLvkj\-Lkjv\J-A 



414 PROSODY : VERSIFICATION [§§ 617, 618 

a. The Dactylic Tetrameter alternates with the hexameter, forming the 
Alcmanian Strophe, as follows : — 

5 for|tes pe|ioraque | pass! 
mecum | saepe vi|ri, || nunc | vino | pellite | curas ; 
eras in [gens lte^rabiums | aequor. 

— Hor. Od. i. 7 (so 28; Ep. 12). 

b* The Dactylic Penthemim (five half -feet) consists of half a pentame- 
ter verse. It is used in combination with the Hexameter to form the First 
Archilochian Strophe; — 

diffii|gere' ni|ves, || redS|unt iam | gramma | campls, 

arbori|busque co|mae; 
mutat | terra" vi|ces || et | decres|centia" | ripas 

fluminS | praeterS|unt. — Hor. Od. iv. 7. 

-For the Fourth Archilochian Strophe (Archilochian heptameter, alternating with 
iambic trimeter catalectic), see § 626. 11. 

Iambic Verse 

Iambic Trimeter 

618. The Iambic Trimeter is the ordinary verse of dramatic 
dialogue. It consists of three measures, each containing a double 
iambus (iambic dipody). The caesura is usually in the third foot. 

Note. — The sign <5JL denotes possible substitution of an irrational spondee ( >JL) 
for an iambus ( \j J-) . 

a. The Iambic Trimeter is often used in lyric poetry (1) as an inde- 
pendent system, or (2) alternating with the Dimeter to form the Iambic 
Strophe, as follows : — 

(1) iam i am 6ffica|ci || do mimus | sci^ntiae" 

supplex et 6|ro || regnS, per | Proserpina^, 

per 6t Did|nae || non moven|d5 numinS, 

per atque lib|ros || carminiim | valentium 

deffxS, ca£|l5 || devoca|re sideril, 

CanidiS, par|ce || vocibiis | tande'm sacris, 

citiimque r£t|r5 || re"tro s61|ve turbmem. — Hor. Epod. 17. 

The last two lines may be thus translated, to show the movement 
in English : — 

Oh ! stay, Canidia, stay thy rites of sorcery, 

Thy charm unbinding backward let thy swift wheel fly ! 



§618] IAMBIC TRIMETER 416 

(2) beatus il|le || qui procul | negotns, 

ut prisca gens | mortalmm, 
paterna rdjra || biibus ex|erc£t suis, 

solutus 6m|nl fenore ; 
nequ 6 excita|tur || classico | mll£s truci, 

nequ e horret i|ratum mare. — Hor. Epod. 2. 

b. In the stricter form of Iambic Trimeter an irrational spondee ( > JL) 
or its equivalent (a cyclic anapaest w <A or an apparent dactyl > \j \j y 
§ 609. e) may be regularly substituted for the first iambus of any dipody. 
A tribrach (\j \j v) may stand for an iambus anywhere except in the 
last place. In the comic poets any of these forms or the proceleusmatic 
(ww \j \j) may be substituted in any foot except the last: — * 

6 lucis al|me rector || £t | caeli decus ! 

qu* altera & cur|ru spatia || nam|mifer 5 ambiens, 

illustre la^jtis || exseris | terrls caput. 

— Sen. Here. Fur. 592-94. 

quid quaeris? an]nos || sexagfn|ta natus is. 

— Ter. Haut. 62. 

homo s um : huma|ni || nil a m g ali|enum piito. 
vel me mone^r 6 hoc || v£l perc<5n[tari piita. 

— id. 77, 78. 

c. The Choliambic (lame Iambic) substitutes a trochee for the last 
iambus : — 

aeque est bea|tiis || ac p6e|m&, cum scrfbit: 
tarn gaiidet in | se, || tamque se fp|se miratur. 

— Catull. xxiii. 16, 16. 
Note. — The Terse may also be regarded as trochaic with anacrusis : as, — 



d. The Iambic Trimeter Catalectic is represented as follows : — 

liexwx|sn^.x/jL|ei/^|| 

It is used in combination with other measures (see § 626. 11), and is 
shown in the following : — 

Vulc&nus ar|dens || Orit <5f|ficmas. — Hor. Od. i. 4. 
or in English : — 

On purple peaks a deeper shade descending. — Scott. 

1 The greater freedom of substitution in the comedy is due to the fact that the verse 
is regarded as made up of separate feet rather than of dipodies. 



416 PROSODY: VERSIFICATION [§619 

Other Iambic Measures 
619. Other forms of Iambic verse are the following : — 

a. The Iambic Tetrameter Catalectic (Septendrius). This consists of 
seven and a half iambic feet, with diaeresis after the fourth and with the 
same substitutions as in Iambic Trimeter : — ■ 

n am i& c { rG d arc £ s | SO r, nuptias || quod m* adpara|rl sensit. 
quibus quidem quam faci|le potuerat || quilscl s* hie | quiesset! 

— Ter. And. 690, 691. 

The metrical scheme of these two verses may be represented as follows : — 
|| > J- >JL \>-L kj J-\\> J-v -L\>JLkj~KI 

Its movement is like the following : — 

In g<5od king Charles's golden days, when 16yalty no harm meant. 

— Vicar of Bray. 

b. The Iambic Tetrameter Acatalectic (Octonarius). This consists of 
eight full iambic feet with the same substitutions as in Iambic Trimeter. 
Like the Septenarius it is used in lively dialogue : — 

dic&t earn dare | nos Ph(5rmio|ni || nuptum ne | suscenseat; 
et magis ess e i\\\ um idoneum, || qu* ipsi sit fami|liarior. 

— Ter. Ph. 720, 721. 

The metrical scheme of these two verses may be represented as follows : — 

II >- v$ y > v5 v | > -£. O X | > II ■+ > ^ I > -t v w II 



> ^ v > -L |^Xu-i||> i->vJv|v-i 



y \j 



c. The Iambic Dimeter. This may be either acatalectic or catalectic. 

1. The Iambic Dimeter Acatalectic consists of four iambic feet. It is used 
in combination with some longer verse (see § 618. a). 

2. The Iambic Dimeter Catalectic consists of three and a half iambic feet. 
It is used only in choruses : — 

quonam cru£n|ta Maenas, 

praeceps am 6 1 re saevo, 

rapitiir quod im| potent! 

f acinus parat | furore ? — Sen. Med. 850-853. 

Note. — Owing to the fact that in modern music each measure begins with a down- 
ward beat, some scholars regard all these forms of Iambic verse as Trochaic vers© 
with anacrusis (§ 618. c. N.). 



§620] TROCHAIC VERSE 417 

Trochaic Verse 

620. The most common form of Trochaic verse is the Tetram- 
eter Catalectic (Septenarius), consisting of four dipodies, the last 
of which lacks a syllable. There is regularly diaeresis after the 
fourth foot : — 

\\_Lv-LZ,\J-v_LZ\\J-^-LZ\JLvJ-A\\ 

In musical notation : — 



rrrnrrmrrrnrrn 



ad \? advenio, spem, saliitem, || consili wm , auxin™ 71 6xpetens. 

— Ter. And. 319. 
In English verse : — 

Tdll me n6t in mournful numbers || life is but an dmpty dream. 

— Longfellow. 

a. In the stricter form of the Septenarius substitutions are allowed 
only in the even feet, but in comedy the tribrach \j \j v, or an irrational 
spondee J- >, cyclic dactyl J- ^w, or apparent anapaest w w >, may be 
substituted for any of the first six feet ; a tribrach for the seventh : — 

itid e ™ habe't peta|s WW2, ac vestitum : || tarn consimilist | atqu e ego. 
sura, pes, sta|ttira, tonsils, || ocull, nasum, | vel labrd, 
malae, me'ntum, | barba, collus; || totus ! quid ver|bis opiist? 
si tergiim ci|catricosum, || nihil hoc similist | similius. 

— PL Am. 443-446. 

The metrical scheme of these four verses is as follows : — 

\\^KJ^J-^\J->J->\\J-> ^JSJ>\J-V -^A|| 

|| JL yj JL kj\J-^J-^\\6v>J-> | J- kj J- A || 
\\-L>JL>\JLkjJ->\\J-> J- > \J-kj J-A\\ 
|| X > J. Kj\-L>J->\\J-> ^w>|^^w-Z.A|| 

b* The Trochaic Tetrameter Acatalectic (Octondrhis'), consisting of four 
complete dipodies, occurs in the lyrical parts of comedy. 

Substitutions as in the Septenarius are allowed except in the last foot. 

c. Some other forms of trochaic verse are found in the lyric poets, in 
combination with other feet, either as whole lines or parts of lines : — 

non ebiir ne|qu e aureum. [Dimeter Catalectic] 

mea renl|det in domo | lacunar. [Iambic Trimeter Catalectic] 

— Hor. Od. ii. 18. 



418 PROSODY: VERSIFICATION [§§621-623 

Mixed Measures 

621. Different measures may be combined in the same verse in two different 
ways. Either (1) a series of one kind is simply joined to a series of another kind 
(compare the changes of rhythm not uncommon in modern music) ; or (2) single feet 
of other measures are combined with the prevailing measures, in which case these odd 
feet are adapted by changing their quantity so that they become irrational (see § 609. e) . 

When enough measures of one kind occur to form a series, we may suppose a 
change of rhythm; when they are isolated, we must suppose adaptation. Of the 
indefinite number of possible combinations but few are found in Latin poetry. 

622. The following verses, combining different rhythmical 
series, are found in Latin lyrical poetry: — 

1. Greater Archilochian (Dactylic Tetrameter ; Trochaic Tripody) : — 



JLcp|. 



yj \J-V 



s<51vitur | acris h!|6ms gra|t& vice* || veris | 6t F&|v6nl. — Hor. Od. i. 4. 

Note. — It is possible that the dactyls were cyclic ; but the change of measure 
seems more probable. 

2. Verse consisting of Dactylic Trimeter catalectic (Dactylic Penthemim) ; 
Iambic Dimeter : — ■ 

\\JLy uUu kj\J-\\ZJ-kj J-\Z jLv J-\\ 

scrfbere | v6rs!cu|l5s || amore" perjculsum gravf . — Hor. Epod. 11. 2. 

Logacedic Verse 

623. Trochaic verses, containing in regular prescribed positions 
irrational measures or irrational feet (cf . § 609. e), are called Loga- 
oedic. The principal logacedic forms are — 

1. Logaoedic Tetrapody (four feet) : Glyconic. 

2. Logaoedic Tripody (three feet) : Pherec ratio (often treated as a 
syncopated Tetrapody Catalectic). 

3. Logaoedic Dipody (two feet) : this may be regarded as a short Phere- 
cratic. 

Note. — This mixture of irrational measures gives an effect approaching that of 
prose: hence the name Logaoedic (\670s, doibrj). These measures originated in the 
Greek lyric poetry, and were adopted by the Romans. All the Roman lyric metres not 
belonging to the regular iambic, trochaic, dactylic, or Ionic systems, were constructed 
on the basis of the three forms given above : viz., Logaoedic systems consisting respec- 
tively of four, three, and two feet. The so-called Logaoedic Pentapody consists of five 
feet, but is to be regarded as composed of two of the others. 



§§ 624, 625] LOGACEDIC VERSE 419 

624. Each logaoedic form contains a single dactyl, 1 which may 
be either in the first, second, or third place. The verse may be 
catalectic or acatalectic : — 

Glyconic Pherecratic 

L || -C v, | J-xj\ J- w I J- (yj) || || -G V I J- W I -L (yj) || 

ii. || ZvKul J- kj I Jt (vy)|f || Zu^ v I J- ( v ) || or 

|| X w |-0 v^ |iZ|^. A 
iii. || Zv| _L v |-Ov,|-Mw)|| 

Note. — The shorter Pherecratic (dipody) (^Ow | — w), if catalectic, appears to 

be a simple Choriambus ( — \j \j | A ) ; and, in general, the effect of the logaoedic 

forms is Choriambic. In fact, they were so regarded by the later Greek and Latin 
metricians, and these metres have obtained the general name of Choriambic. But 
they are not true choriambic, though they may very likely have been felt to be such 
by the composer, who imitated the forms without much thought of their origin. They 
may be read (scanned) , therefore, on that principle. But it is better to read them as 
logaoedic measures ; and that course is followed here. 

625. The verses constructed upon the several Logaoedic forms 
or models are the following : — 

1. Glyconic (Second Glyconic, catalectic): — 

Romae | principis | urbi|um. 
In English : — 

E6rms more r£al than living man. — Shelley. 

Note. — In this and most of the succeeding forms the foot preceding the dactyl is 
always irrational in Horace, consisting of an irrational spondee ( >). 

2. Aristophanic (First Pherecratic) : — 

temper&t |6rS | frenis. — Hor. Od. i. 8. 

Note. — It is very likely that this was made equal in time to the preceding by 
protracting the last two syllables : — 



_Z. A 



wirnriM 



1 Different Greek poets adopted fixed types in regard to the place of the dactyls, 
and so a large number of verses arose, each following a strict law, which were imi- 
tated by the Romans as distinct metres. 



420 PROSODY: VERSIFICATION [§ 626 

3. Adonic (First Pherecratic, shortened) : — 

Ten-uit | urbem. — Hor. 
Or perhaps : — 

4. Pherecratic (Second Pherecratic) : — 

, -' 8| - o " i,£i2iA, rnr?flrrM 

eras dondberis ha6do. — Hor. 
Often scanned as follows : — 

5. Lesser Asclepiadic (Second Pherecratic with syncope and First Phert* 
cratic catalectic) : — 

|| -L > | -C v, | lL II -G v/ | X w | vi A I 

Maecenas Stavis edite regibus. — Hor. 

6 . Greater Asclepiadic (the same as 5, with a syncopated Logacedic Dipody 
interposed) : — 

|| -L > | -0 v, I Lt|| -0 v, |lZ || -0 V | J- yj \± A || 
tA ne quadsierls — scfre ngfas — quern mini, quern tibf. — Hor. 

7. Lesser Sapphic (Logaozdic Pentapody, with dactyl in the third place) : — 

\\-Lv\J->\^\\^\-Lv\d.\6h\\ 
integer vltae* scelerlsque' ptirus. — Hor. 
Or in English : — 

Brilliant hdpes, all w6ven in gdrgeous tissues. — Longfellow. 

8. Greater Sapphic (Third Glyconic; First Pherecratic) : — 

H X w | X > | -G w I \L || -<• kj | J- kj I \L | 6 A || 
te 1 dS6s or6 Sybarln || cur properis amando. — Hor. 

9. Lesser Alcaic (Logaozdic Tetrapody y two irrational dactyls, two 
trochees) : — 

J ||-Cw|-G^| J- w|^.w|| 

vlrgmibus pu§risqu§ canto. — Hor. 



§§ 625, 626] METRES OF HORACE 421 

10. Greater Alcaic (Logacedic Pentapody, catalectic, with anacrusis, and 
dactyl in the third place, — compare Lesser Sapphic) : — 

|| d : JL kj I J- > || -<j kj | JL kj | 6 A || 
iust Mm 6t tenacem || propSsiti virum. — Hor. 
Note. — Only the above logacedic forms are employed by Horace. 

11. Phalsecean {Logacedic Pentapody, with dactyl in the second place) : — 

|| v£ > I -0 yj | X v, | J- v | J- O || 
quae'nam te m&l& mens, mise'lll Rauidi, 
agit pra6cipit ewi in me6s lambos? — Catull. xl. 
In English : — 

Gorgeous flowerets in the sunlight shining. — Longfellow. 

12. Gly conic Pherecratic {Second Gly conic with syncope, and Second 
Pherecratic) : — 

||xe|-Cw|Xw|rZH^.e|-Cw|i£|^AH 
6 ColdniS quae* ciipis || p6nte lddere' 16ngo. — Catull. xvii. 

METRES OF HORACE 

626. The Odes of Horace include nineteen varieties of stanza. 
These are : — 

1. Alcaic, consisting of two Greater Alcaics (10), one Trochaic Dimeter 
with anacrusis, and one Lesser Alcaic (9) 1 : — 

iust wm e't tenacem || pr6positi virum 
non civi ww ardor |{ prava iubentium, 
non vultus fnstantis tyranni 
mente quatit solida, nequ e Auster. — Od. iii. 3. 

(Found in Od. i. 9, 16, 17, 26, 27, 29, 31, 34, 35, 37 ; ii. 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 14, 15, 17, 

19, 20; iii. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 17, 21, 23, 26, 29; iv. 4, 9, 14, 15.) 

Note. — The Alcaic Strophe is named after the Greek poet Alcseus of Lesbos, and 
was a special favorite with Horace, of whose Odes thirty-seven are in this form. It 
is sometimes called the Horatian Stanza. 

2. Sapphic (minor), consisting of three Lesser Sapphics (7) and one 

Adonic (3) : — 

iam satis terrfs || nivis atque dlrae 
grandinis misit || pater £t rub^nte 
dextera sacras |j iaculatus arcis 
te'rruit urbem. — Od. i. 2. 

(Found in Od. i. 2, 10, 12, 20. 22, 25, 30, 32, 38 ; ii. 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 16; iii. 8, 11, 14, 18, 

20, 22, 27; iv. 2, 6, 11; Carm. Saec.) 

i The figures refer to the foregoing list (§ 625). ■ 



422 PROSODY: VERSIFICATION [§626 

Note. — The Sapphic Stanza is named after the poetess Sappho of Lesbos, and 
was a great favorite with the ancients. It is used by Horace in twenty-five Odes — 
more frequently than any other except the Alcaic. 

3. Sapphic (major), consisting of one Aristophanic (2) and one Greater 

Sapphic (8) : — 

Lydia die, per 6mnis 

t$ de6s oro, Sybarm || cur properas amando. — Od. i. 8. 

4. Asclepiadean I (minor), consisting of Lesser Asclepiadics (5) : — 

exegi monument** 771 || aere perennius 
regalique sitd || pyramid 1 * 771 altiiis. — Od. iii. 30. 
(Found in Od. i. 1; iii. 30; iv. 8.) 

5. Asclepiadean II, consisting of one Glyconic (1) and one Lesser 

Asclepiadic (5) : — 

navis quae* tibi creditiim 
debes Ve'rgiliiim, || ffnibus Atticis 

r£ddas mcolumein, precdr, 
6t serves animal || dfmidium meae\ — Od. i. 3. 

(Found in Od. i. 3, 13, 19, 36; iii. 9, 15, 19, 24, 25, 28; iv. i, 3.) 

6. Asclepiadean III, consisting of three Lesser Asclepiadics (5) and one 

Glyconic (1) : — 

quis desiderio || sit pudor aiit modus 

tarn car! capitis? || praecipe lugubrfs 

canttis, Melpomene, || cui liquidam pater 

vocem cum cithara dedit. — Od. i. 24. 

(Found in Od. i. 6, 15, 24, 33; ii. 12; iii. 10, 16; iv. 5, 12.) 

7. Asclepiadean IV, consisting of two Lesser Asclepiadics (5), one 
Pherecratic (4), and one Glyconic (1) : — 

6 f5ns Bandusiae* || splendiditfr vitro, 
dulcl dfgne mere, || non sine fl6ribus, 
eras donaberis ha£d6 

cuf frons tiirgida ctfrnibus. — Od. iii. 13. 
(Found in Od. i. 5, 14, 21, 23; iii. 7, 13; iv. 13.) 

8. Asclepiadean V (major), consisting of Greater Asclepiadics (6) : — 

td ne" qua&sierfs, || scire nefas! || qu£m mihi, qu£m tibf 
finem di dedermt, || Leuconoe, || ne'e Babylonios 
tentarfs numerds. — Od. i. 11. 

(Found in Od. i. 11, 18 ; iv. 10.) 

9. Alcmanian, consisting of Dactylic Hexameter (§ 615) alternating 
with Tetrameter (§ 617. a). (Od. i. 7, 28 j Epod. 12.) 



§626] METRES OF HORACE 423 

10. Archilochian I, consisting of a Dactylic Hexameter alternating with 
a Dactylic Penthemim (see § 617. b). (Od. iv. 7.) 

11. Archilochian IV, consisting of a Greater Archilochian (heptameter, 
§ 622. 1), followed by Iambic Trimeter Catalectic (§ 618. d). The stanza 
consists of two pairs of verses : — 

s6Mtur acris hie'ms grata vice || Veris 6t Favoni, 

trahuntque siccas || machinae* carinas; 
ac neque iam stabulis gaude't pecus, || aut arator igni, 

nee prata canis || albican t pruinfs. — Od. i. 4. 

12. Iambic Trimeter alone (see § 618). (Epod. 17.) 

13. Iambic Strophe (see § 618. a). (Epod. 1-10.) 

14. Dactylic Hexameter alternating with Iambic Dimeter : — 

n6x erat, 6t caelo || fulgebat luna sereno 

int6r minora sidera, 
cum tu, magnoriim || ntime'n laesura deorum, 

in v^rba iurabas mea. — Epod. 15. (So in Epod. 14.) 

15. Dactylic Hexameter with Iambic Trimeter (§ 618): — 

altera iam teritiir || bellfs clvilibus a^tas, 
suis et ipsa Roma || vlribus ruit. — Epod. 16. 

16. Yerse of Four Lesser Ionics (§ 609. c. 2): — 

miserar wm est | nequ e amorl | dare ludum | neque dulcl 
mala vino | laver e aut ex|animarl | metuentis. — Od. iii. 12. 

17. Iambic Trimeter (§ 618); Dactylic Penthemim (§ 617. b)\ Iambic 

Pettf, nihil me || sicut anted iuvat 
scribere v^rsiculos || amore pe'rculsiim gravi. — Epod. 11. 

18. Dactylic Hexameter; Iambic Dimeter; Dactylic Penthemim(§ 617. b): 

h6rrida t^mpestas || caelum contrdxit, et imbres 
nivesque deduciint IovCm ; || nunc mare, mine siliiae' . . . 

— Epod. 13. 

19. Trochaic Dimeter, Iambic Trimeter, each catalectic (see § 620. c). 

INDEX TO THE METRES OF HORACE 

Lib. I 

1. Maecenas atavis : 4. 8. Lydiadic: 3. 

2. Iam satis terris : 2. 9. Vides ut alta : 1. 

3. Sic te diva: 5. 10. Mercuri facunde nepos : 2. 

4. Solvitur acris hiems : 11. 11. Tu ne quaesieris: 8. 

5. Quismulta: 7. 12. Quern virum: 2. 

6. Scriberis Vario : 6. 13. Cum tu Lydia : 5. 

7. Laudabunt alii : 9. 14. Onavis: 7. 



424 



PROSODY: VERSIFICATION 



l§626 



15. Pastor cum traheret : 6. 

16. O matre pulchra : 1. 

17. Velox amoenum : 1. 

18. Nullam Vare: 8. 

19. Mater saeva : 5. 

20. Vilepotabis: 2. 

21. Dianam tenerae : 7. 

22. Integer vitae : 2. 

23. Vitas inuleo: 7. 

24. Quis desiderio : 6. 

25. Parcius iunctas : 2. 

26. Musis amicus : 1. 



27. Natis in usum : 1. 

28. Te maris: 9. 

29. Icci beatis: 1. 

30. 6 Venus: 2. 

31. Quid dedica turn : 1. 

32. Poscimur: 2. 

33. Albinedoleas: 6. 

34. Parcus deorum : 1. 

35. Odiva: 1. 

36. Etture: 5. 

37. Nunc est bibendum : 

38. Persicosodi: 2. 



Lib. II 



1. Mo turn ex MetellS : 1. 

2. Nullus argento : 2. 

3. Aequam memento : 1. 

4. Ne sit ancillae : 2. 

5. Nondum subacta : 1. 

6. Septimi Grades : 2. 

7. O saepe mecum : 1. 

8. IJlla si iuris : 2. 

9. Non semper imbres : 1. 
10. Rectius vives : 2. 



11. Quid bellicosus : 1. 

12. Nolislonga: 6. 

13. Ille et nefasto : 1. 

14. Eheufugaces: 1. 

15. lam pauca: 1. 

16. Otium divos : 2. 

17. Cur me querellis : 1. 

18. Nonebur: 19. 

19. Bacchum in remotis : 1. 

20. Non usitata : 1. 



Lib. Ill 



1. Odiprofanum: 1. 

2. Angustam amice : 1. 

3. Iustum et tenacem : 1. 

4. Descende caelo : 1. 

5. Caelo tonantem : 1. 

6. Delicta maiorum : 1. 

7. Quidfles: 7. 

8. Martiis caelebs : 2. 

9. Donee gratus: 5. 

10. Extremum Tanain : 6. 

11. Mercuri nam te : 2. 

12. Miserarum est: 16. 

13. 6 fons Bandusiae : 7. 

14. Herculis ritu : 2. 

15. Uxor pauperis : 5. 



16. Inclusam Danaen : 6. 

17. Aeli vetusto : 1. 

18. Faune nympharum : 2. 

19. Quantum distet : 5. 

20. Nonvides: 2. 

21. O nata mecum: 1. 

22. Montium custos : 2. 

23. Caelo supinas: 1. 

24. Intactis opulentior : 5. 

25. Quo me Bacche : 5. 

26. Vixipuellis: 1. 

27. Impios parrae : 2. 

28. Festo quid : 5. 

29. Tyrrhena regum : 1. 

30. Exegi monumentum : 4. 



Lib. IV 



1. Intermissa Venus : 5. 

2. Pindarum quisquis : 2. 

3. Quern tu Melpomene : 5. 

4. Qualem ministrum : 1. 

5. Divis orte bonis : 6. 

6. Dive quern proles : 2. 

7. Diffugere nives : 10. 
8- Donarem pateras : 4. 



9. Ne forte credas : 1. 

10. O cru delis adhuc : 8. 

11. Est mihi nonum : 2. 

12. lam veris comites : 6. 

13. Audivere Lyce : 7. 

14. Quae cura patrum : 1. 

15. Phoebus volentem : 1. 
Carmen Saeculdre : 2. 



§§ 626-628] MISCELLANEOUS 425 

Epodes 

1. IbisLiburms: 13. 10. Malasoluta: 13. 

2. Beatusille: 13. 11. Petti nihil: 17. 

3. Parentis Olim : 13. 12. Quid tibi vis : 9. 

4. Lupis et agnis : 13. 13. Horrida tempestas : 18. 

5. At 6 deorum : 13. 14. Mollis inertia : 14. 

6. Quid immerentis : 13. 15. Nox erat : 14. 

7. Quo quo scelesti : 13. 16. Altera iam : 15. 

8. Rogare longo : 13. 17. Iam iam efficaci : 12. 

9. Quando repostum: 13. 

627. Other lyric poets use other combinations of the above- 
mentioned verses : — 

a. Glyconics with one Pherecratic (both imperfect) : — 

Dia|nae* sumus | fn fide 
puel|l ae £t piie|r* fntegrf : 
Dla|nam, piie|r* fntegrf 

pdel'laeque ca^na'mus. — Catull. xxxiv. 

b* Sapphics, in a series of single lines, closing with an Adonic: — 

An ma|gis dl'ri tremu'ere | Manes 
Hercu|l ewi ? £t vi|sum canis | fnfe'rorum 
fugit | abrup|tis trepi'dus ca'tenis? 
falli'mur : lae|te venit | £cce | vultu, 
quern tujlft Poe|as ; hume|risque | tela 
gestat | 6t no|tas popii|lfs pha|r£tras 

Herculis | heres. — Sen. Here. Oet. 1600-1606. 

c. Sapphics followed by Glyconics, of indefinite number (id. Here. Fur. 
830-874, 875-894). 

MISCELLANEOUS 

628. Other measures occur in various styles of poetry. 

a. Anapaestic (§ 609. b. 2) verses of various lengths are found in dramatic 
poetry. The spondee, dactyl, or proceleusmatic may be substituted for the 

^ hie hom6st | omni Mm homi|num pra£|cipuos 

volupta|tIbiis gau|dilsqu e an|tepotens. 
ita c6m|modS. quae* | ctipl e'vemunt, 
quod ago | siibit, ad|secue | sequitur : 
ita gau|dium sup|pedit&t. — PL Trin. 1115-1119. 

6. Bacchiac (§ 609. d. 4) verses (five-timed) occur in the dramatic poets, — 
very rarely in Terence, more commonly in Plautus, — either in verses of two 
feet (Dimeter) or of four (Tetrameter). They are treated very freely, as are 



426 PROSODY: VERSIFICATION [§§628,629 

all measures in early Latin. The long syllables may be resolved, or the 
molossus (three longs) substituted : — 

multas res | simit^ in | me6 cor|de v6rso, 

mult wm In co|gitando | dol6r ewi in|dipiscor. 

egSme't me | cog 5 6t ma]cer 5 6t de|fatigo ; 

magister | mih* exer|citor ani|mus nunc est. 

— PI. Trin. 223-226. 

c. Cretic measures (§ 609. d. 1) occur in the same manner as the Bac- 
chiac, with the same substitutions. The last foot is usually incomplete : — 
amor ami|cus mihi | n6 fuas | umquam. 
his ego | d g artibus | gratiam | facio. 
nil 6g° is|tos moror | faCceos | mores, —id. 267, 293, 297. 

d» Saturnian Verse. In early Latin is found a rude form of verse, not 
borrowed from the Greek like the others, but as to the precise nature of 
which scholars are not agreed. 1 

1. According to one view the verse is based on quantity, is composed of 
six feet, and is divided into two parts by a caesura before the fourth thesis. 
Each thesis may consist of a long syllable or of two short ones, each arsis 
of a short syllable, a long syllable, or two short syllables ; but the arsis, 
except at the beginning of the verse and before the caesura, is often entirely 
suppressed, though rarely more than once in the same verse : — 

dabunt malum Metelll || Nae>io poetae. 

2. According to another theory the Saturnian is made up, without regard 
to quantity, of alternating accented and unaccented syllables; but for any 
unaccented syllable two may be substituted, and regularly are so substituted 
in the second foot of the verse : — 

dabunt malum Metelli || Naevio poetae. 

EARLY PROSODY 

629. The prosody of the earlier poets differs in several re- 
spects from that of the later. 2 

a. At the end of words s, being only feebly sounded, does not make 
position with a following consonant; it sometimes disappeared altogether. 
This usage continued in all poets till Cicero's time (§ 15. 7). 

1 The two principal theories only are given. There are numerous variations, par- 
ticularly of the second theory here stated. 

2 Before the Latin language was used in literature, it had become much changed 
by the loss of final consonants and the shortening of final syllables under the influence 
of accent. In many cases this change was still in progress in the time of the early 
poets. This tendency was arrested by the study of grammar and by literature, but 
shows itself again in the Romance languages. 



§629] EARLY PROSODY 427 

5. A long syllable immediately preceded or followed by the ictus may 
be shortened (iambic shortening) : — 

1. In a word of two syllables of which the first is short (this effect remained in 
a few words like puta, cave, vale, vide, ego, modo, duo 1 ): — 

abi (Ter. Ph. 59); boni (id. 516) ; homo suavis (id. 411). 

2. If it is either a monosyllable or the first syllable of a word which is pre- 
ceded by a short monosyllable : — 

sed h&s tabellas (PI. Pers. 195) ; quid hie nunc (id. Epid. 157) ; per mplu- 
vium (Ter. Ph. 707) ; eg ostenderem (id. 793). 

3. When preceded by a short initial syllable in a word of more than three 
syllables : — 

venustatis (Ter. Hec. 848) ; senectutem (id. Ph. 434) ; Syracusas (PI. Merc. 
37) ; amicltia (id. Ps. 1263). 

c. In a few isolated words position is often disregarded. 2 Such are ille, 
immo, inde, iste, omnis, nempe, quippe, iinde. 

d. The original long quantity of some final syllable!, is retained. 

1 . The ending -or is retained long in nouns with long stem-vowel (original r- 
stems or original s-steins) : — 

m6do quom dfct a in nr 5 mgerebas <5dium n6n uxor eram (PI. Asin. 927). 
fta m* in p6ctor e atque cdrde facit amor inceridium (id. Merc. 500). 
atque quanto n6x fuisti 16ngior hac proxuraa (id. Am. 548). 

2. The termination -es (-itis) is sometimes retained long, as in miles, superstes. 

3. All verb-endings in -r, -s, and -t may be retained long where the vowel is 
elsewhere long in inflection : — 

r^gredior audisse me (PI. Capt. 1023); atqu e ut qui fueris et qui nunc (id. 
248); me nominat haec (id. Epid. iv. 1. 8); faciat ut semper (id. Poen. 
ii. 42); infuscabat, amabo (cretics, id. Cist. i. 21); qui amet (id. Merc. 
1021) ; ut fit in b611o capitur alter filius (id. Capt. 25); tibi sit ad mg 
revisas (id. True. ii. 4. 79). 

e. Hiatus (§ 612. g) is allowed somewhat freely, especially at a pause 
in the sense, or when there is a change of speaker. 3 

i Cf. ambo (also a dual, p. 59, footnote), in which the o is retained because of the 
length of the first syllable. 

2 Scholars are not yet agreed upon the principle or the extent of this irregularity. 

3 The extent of this license is still a question among scholars ; but in the present 
state of texts it must sometimes be allowed. 



428 MISCELLANEOUS [§§ 630, 681 



MISCELLANEOUS 

Reckoning of Time 

630. The Roman Year was designated, in earlier times, by the names of the 
Consuls ; but was afterwards reckoned from the building of the City (ab urbe condita, 
anno urbis conditae), the date of which was assigned by Varro to a period correspond- 
ing with B.C. 753. In order, therefore, to reduce Roman dates to those of the Christian 
era, the year of the city is to be subtracted from 754: e.g. a.u.c. 691 (the year of 
Cicero's consulship) corresponds to B.C. 63. 

Before Caesar's reform of the Calendar (b.c. 46), the Roman year consisted of 355 
days : March, May, Qumtilis (July) , and October having each 31 days, February hav- 
ing 28, and each of the remainder 29. As this calendar year was too short for the 
solar year, the Romans, in alternate years, at the discretion of the pontifices, inserted 
a month of varying length (mensis intercaldris) after February 23, and omitted the 
rest of February. The " Julian year," by Caesar's reformed Calendar, had 365 days, 
divided into months as at present. Every fourth year the 24th of February (vi. Kal. 
Mart.) was counted twice, giving 29 days to that month : hence the year was called 
bissextilis. The month Quintilis received the name Iulius (July), in honor of Julius 
Caesar ; and Sextilis was called Augustus (August) , in honor of his successor. The 
Julian year (see below) remained unchanged till the adoption of the Gregorian Calen- 
dar (a.d. 1582), which omits leap-year three times in every four hundred years. 

631. Dates, according to the Roman Calendar, are reckoned 
as follows: — 

a. The first day of the month was called Kalendae {Calends), 

Note. — Kalendae is derived from calare, to call, — the Calends being the day on 
which the pontiffs publicly announced the New Moon in the Comitia Calata. This 
they did, originally, from actual observation. 

6. On the fifteenth day of March, May, July, and October, but the thir- 
teenth of the other months, were the Idiis (Ides), the day of Full Moon. 

c. On the seventh day of March, May, July, and October, but the fifth 
of the other months, were the Nonae (Nones or ninths). 

d. From the three points thus determined, the days of the month were 
reckoned backwards as so many days before the Nones, the Ides, or the 
Calends. The point of departure was, by Roman custom, counted in the 
reckoning, the second day being three days before, etc. This gives the fol- 
lowing rule for determining the date : — 

If the given date be Calends, add two to the number of days in the month pre- 
ceding, — if Nones or Ides, add one to that of the day on which they fall, — and 
from the number thus ascertained subtract the given date. Thus, — 

vin. Kal. Feb. (31 + 2 - 8) = Jan. 25. 

iv. Non. Mar. (7 -f 1 — 4) = Mar. 4. 

iv. Id. Sept. (13 + 1 - 4) = Sept. 10. 



631, 632] 



CALENDAR 



429 



Note. — The name of the month appears as an adjective in agreement with Kalen- 
dae, Nonae, Idus. 

For peculiar constructions in dates, see § 424. g. 

e. The days of the Roman month by the Julian Calendar, as thus ascer- 
tained, are given in the following table : — 



January 



February 



March 



April 



1. Kal. Ian. 


Kal. Feb. 




Kal 


Martiae 


Kal. Apriles 


2. iv. Non. Ian. iv. Non. Feb. 


vi. Non. Mart. 


iv. Non. Apr. 


3. in. " 


in. " 




v. 


" " 


in. " " 


4. prid." " 


prid." 




IV. 


<( <« 


prid." 


5. Non. Ian. 


Non. Feb. 




in. 


<< tt 


Non. AprilSs 


6. vin. Id. Ian 


l. vin. Id. Fet 


>. 


prid. 


it a 


viii. Id. Apr. 


7. vii. " " 


VII. " " 




Non 


Martiae 


VII. " " 


8. vi. " " 


VI. " " 




VIII. 


Id. Mart. 


VI. " " 


9. v. " " 


v. " " 




VII. 


<( (< 


v. " " 


10. iv. " " 


IV. " " 




VI. 


(< (< 


IV. " " 


11. in. " " 


III. " " 




V. 


<( (< 


in. " " 


12. prid. " " 


prid. " " 




IV. 


n it 


prid. " " 


13. Idus Ian. 


Idus Feb. 




III. 


tt tt 


Idus Apriles. 


14. xrx. Kal. F 


eb. xvi. Kal. Martias 


prid. 


tt n 


xviii. Kal. Maias 


15. xviii. " ' 


1 XV. " 


<( 


Idus Martiae 


XVII. 




16. xvn. " ' 


1 XIV. " 


<< 


XVII. 


Kal. Aprilis. 


XVI. 




17. xvi. " 


1 XIII. " 


«< 


XVI. 


(< {< 


XV. 




18. xv. " ' 


* XII. " 


<< 


XV. 


(< a 


XIV. 




19. xiv. " ' 


1 XI. " 


n 


XIV. 


tt tt 


XIII. 




20. xiii. " ' 


* X. " 


(i 


XIII. 


a a 


XII. 




21. xn. " 


* rx. " 


<( 


XII. 


tt a 


XI. 




22. xi. " 


' VIII. " 


<< 


XI. 


a tt 


X. 




23. x. " ' 


1 VII. '* 


<< 


X. 


a tt 


IX. 




24. rx. " ' 


* VI. " 


tt 


IX. 


tt a 


VIII. 




25. vin. " ' 


t Y it 


a 


VIII. 


a a 


VII. 




26. vii. " ' 


1 IV. " 


n 


VII. 


it tt 


VI. 




27. vi. " 


* III. " 


n 


VI. 


{< it 


v. 




28. v. 


1 prid. " 


<« 


V. 


n a 


rv. 




29. iv. " ' 


■ [prid. Kal. Mart, in 


IV. 


n a 


in. 




30. m. " ' 


* leap-year, 


the vi. 


III. 


a n 


prid. " " 


31. prid. " ' 


1 Kal. (24th) being 


prid. 


it a 


(So June, Sept., 


(So Aug., I 


tec.) counted twice.] 


(So May, July, Oct.) 


Nov.) 





Note. — Observe that a date before the Julian Reform (b.c. 46) is to be found not 
by the above table, but by taking the earlier reckoning of the number of days in the 
month. 

Measures of Value, etc. 

632. The money of the Eomans was in early times wholly of cop- 
per. The unit was the as, which was nominally a pound in weight, but 
actually somewhat less. It was divided into twelve unciae (ounces). 



430 MISCELLANEOUS [§§ 632-636 

In the third century b.c. the as was gradually reduced to one-half 
of its original value. In the same century silver coins were intro- 
duced, — the denarius and the sestertius. The denarius = 10 asses ; 
the sestertius == 2\ asses. 

633. The Sestertius was probably introduced at a time when the 
as had been so far reduced that the value of the new coin (2-j- asses) 
was equivalent to the original value of the as. Hence, the Sester- 
tius (usually abreviated to ++§ or HS) came to be used as the unit 
of value, and nummus, coin, often means simply sestertius. As the 
reduction of the standard went on, the sestertius became equivalent 
to 4 asses. Gold was introduced later, the aureus being equal to 
100 sesterces. The approximate value of these coins is seen in the 
following table : — 

2-J asses = 1 sestertius or nummus, value nearly 5 cents (2£d.). 

10 asses or 4 sestertii = 1 denarius . " " 20 " (10 d.). 

1000 sestertii = 1 sestertium . . . " " $50.00 (£10). 

Note. — The word sestertius is a shortened form of semis-tertius, the third one, a 
half. The abbreviation -HHr or HS = duo et semis, two and a half. 

634. The sestertium (probably originally the genitive plural of ses- 
tertius depending on mille) was a sum of money, not a coin ; the word 
is inflected regularly as a neuter noun : thus, tria sestertia = $150.00. 

When sestertium is combined with a numeral adverb, centena milia, 
hundreds of thousands, is to be understood : thus deciens sestertium 
(deciens hs) = deciens centena milia sestertium = $50,000. Sestertium in 
this combination may also be inflected : deciens sestertii, sestertio, etc. 

In the statement of large sums sestertium is often omitted as well 
as centena milia: thus sexagiens (Eosc. Am. 2) signifies, sexagiens 
[centena milia sestertium] =6,000,000 sesterces = $300,000 (nearly). 

635. In the statement of sums of money in Eoman numerals, a 
line above the number indicates thousands ; lines above and at the 
sides also, hundred-thousands. Thus hs dc = 600 sestertii; hsdc = 
600,000 sestertii, or 600 sestertia; hs [dc] = 60,000,000 sestertii, or 
60,000 sestertia. 

636. The Eoman Measures of Length are the following: — 

12 inches (unciae) = 1 Roman Foot (pes: 11.65 English inches). 
li Feet = 1 Cubit (cubitum). — 2£ Feet = 1 Step (gradus). 
5 Feet = 1 Pace (passus). — 1000 Paces (mille passuum) = 1 Mile. 



§§636-638] MEASURES OF WEIGHT AND CAPACITY 431 

The Roman mile was equal to 4850 English feet. 

The iugerum, or unit of measure of land, was an area of 240 (Roman) 
feet long and 120 broad ; a little less than § of an English acre. 

637. The Measures of Weight are — 

12 unciae (ounces) = one pound (libra, about f lb. avoirdupois). 
Fractional parts (weight or coin) are — 

y 1 ^, uncia. T \, quincunx. f , dodrans. 

J, sextans. i, semis. £, dextdns. 

J, quadrans. T 7 2, septunx. £J, deunx. 

i, triens. f , bes or bessis. £§, as. 

The Talent (talentum) was a Greek weight (TaAai/roi/) = 60 librae, 

638. The Measures of Capacity are — 

12 cyathl = 1 sextdrius (nearly a pint). 
16 sextarii = 1 modius (peck). 

6 sextarii = 1 congius (3 quarts, liquid measure). 

8 congii = 1 amphora (6 gallons). 



432 GLOSSARY [§§ 639, 640 



GLOSSAKY 

OF TERMS USED IN GRAMMAR, RHETORIC, AND PROSODY 

639. Many of these terms are pedantic names given by early grammarians to forms 
of speech used naturally by writers who were not conscious that they were using fig- 
ures at all — as, indeed, they were not. Thus when one says, "It gave me no little 
pleasure," he is unconsciously using litotes; when he says, "John went up the street, 
James down," antithesis; when he says, "High as the sky," hyperbole. Many were 
given under a mistaken notion of the nature of the usage referred to. Thus med and 
ted (§ 143. a. n.) were supposed to owe their d to paragoge, sumpsi its p to epenthesis. 
Such a sentence as " See my coat, how well it fits ! " was supposed to be an irregularity 
to be accounted for by prolepsis. 

Many of these, however, are convenient designations for phenomena which often 
occur ; and most of them have an historic interest, of one kind or another. 

640. Grammatical Terms 

Anacoluihon: a change of construction in the same sentence, leaving the 

first part broken or unfinished. 
Anastrophe: inversion of the usual order of words. 
Apodosis: the conclusion of a conditional sentence (see Protasis). 
Archaism: an adoption of old or obsolete forms. 
Asyndeton: omission of conjunctions (§ 323. &). 
Barbarism: adoption of foreign or unauthorized forms. 
Brachylogy: brevity of expression. 
Crasis: contraction of two vowels into one (■§ 15. 3). 
Ellipsis: omission of a word or words necessary to complete the sense. 
Enallage: substitution of one word or form for another. 
Epenthesis: insertion of a letter or syllable. 
Hellenism: use of Greek forms or constructions. 
Hendiadys (%v Slol Svolv) : the use of two nouns, with a conjunction, instead 

of a single modified noun. 
Hypallage: interchange of constructions. 
Hysteron proteron : a reversing of the natural order of ideas. 



This term was applied to cases where the natural sequence of events is violated in 
language because the later event is of more importance than the earlier and so comes 
first to the mind. This was supposed to be an artificial embellishment in Greek, and 
so was imitated in Latin. It is still found in artless narrative ; cf . "Bred and Born in 
a Brier Bush " (Uncle Remus). 



: 



Metathesis: transposition of letters in a word. 

Paragoge: addition of a letter or letters to the end of a word. 

Parenthesis: insertion of a phrase interrupting the construction. 



j 



§§ 640, 641] RHETORICAL FIGURES 433 

Periphrasis: a roundabout way of expression (circumlocution). 
Pleonasm: the use of needless words. 

Polysyndeton: the use of an unnecessary number of copulative conjunctions. 
Prolepsis: the use of a word in the clause preceding the one where it would 

naturally appear (anticipation) . 
Protasis: a clause introduced by a conditional expression (if, when, whoever), 

leading to a conclusion called the Apodosis (§ 512). 
Syncope: omission of a letter or syllable from the middle of a word. 
Synesis (constructio ad sensum) : agreement of words according to the sense, 

and not the grammatical form (§ 280. a). 
Tmesis: the separation of the two parts of a compound word by other words 

(cutting) . 

This term came from the earlier separation of prepositions (originally adverbs) from 
the verbs with which they were afterwards joined ; so in per ecastor scitus puer, a very 
fine boy, egad! As this was supposed to be intentional, it was ignorantly imitated in 
Latin; as in cere- comminuit -brum (Ennius). 

Zeugma : the use of a verb or an adjective with two different words, to 
only one of which it strictly applies (yoking). 

641. Rhetorical Figures 

Allegory: a narrative in which abstract ideas figure as circumstances, events, 

or persons, in order to enforce some moral truth. 
Alliteration: the use of several words that begin with the same sound. 
Analogy: argument from resemblances. 
Anaphora: the repetition of a word at the beginning of successive clauses 

(§598./). 
Antithesis: opposition, or contrast of parts (for emphasis : § 598./). 
Antonomasia: use of a proper for a common noun, or the reverse : — 

sint Maecenates, non deerunt, Flacce, Marones, so there be patrons (like Mae- 
cenas), poets (like Virgil) will not be lacking, Flaccus (Mart. viii. 56. 5). 

ilia furia et pestis, that fury and plague (i.e. Clodius); Homeromastix, scourge 
of Homer (i.e. Zoilus). 

Aposiopesis: an abrupt pause for rhetorical effect. 

Catachresis: a harsh metaphor (abusio, misuse of words). 

Chiasmus: a reversing of the order of words in corresponding pairs of phrases 

(§ 598./). 
Climax: a gradual increase of emphasis, or enlargement of meaning. 
Euphemism: the mild expression of a painful or repulsive idea : — 

si quid el accident, if anything happens to him (i.e. if he dies). 

Euphony : the choice of words for their agreeable sound. 
Hyperbaton: violation of the usual order of words. 






434 GLOSSAKY [§§ 641, 642 

Hyperbole: exaggeration for rhetorical effect. 

Irony: the use of words which naturally convey a sense contrary to what is 

meant. 
Litotes: the affirming of a thing by denying its contrary (§ 326. c). 
Metaphor: the figurative use of words, indicating an object by some 

resemblance. 
Metonymy: the use of the name of one thing to indicate some kindred thing. 
Onomatopoeia: a fitting of sound to sense in the use of words. 
Oxymoron: the use of contradictory words in the same phrase : — 

Insaniens sapientia, foolish wisdom. 

Paronomasia: the use of words of like sound. 

Prosopopoeia: personification. 

Simile: a figurative comparison (usually introduced by like, or as). 

Synchysis: the interlocked order (§ 598. h). 

Synecdoche: the use of the name of a part for the whole, or the reverse. 

642. Terms of Prosody 

Acatalectic : complete, as a verse or a series of feet (§ 612. a). 
Anaclasis: breaking up of rhythm by substituting different measures. 
Anacrusis: the unaccented syllable or syllables preceding averse (§ 608. g). 
Antistrophe: a series of verses corresponding to one which has gone before 

(cf. strophe). 
Arsis: the unaccented part of a foot (§ 611). 
Basis: a single foot preceding the regular movement of a verse. 
Ccesura: the ending of a word within a metrical foot (§ 611. b). 
Catalectic: see Catalexis. 
Catalexis: loss of a final syllable (or syllables) making the series catalectic 

(incomplete, § 612. a). 
Contraction: the use of one long syllable for two short (§ 610). 
Correption: shortening of a long syllable, for metrical reasons. 
Diwresis: the coincidence of the end of a foot with the end of a word 

within the verse (§ 611. c). 
Dialysis: the use of i (consonant) and v as vowels (silua = silva, § 603./. n. 4 ). 
Diastole: the lengthening of a short syllable by emphasis (§ 612. b). 
Dimeter: consisting of two like measures. 
Dipody: consisting of two like feet. 
Distich: a system or series of two verses. 
Ecthlipsis: the suppression of a final syllable in -m before a word beginning 

with a vowel (§ 612./). 
Elision: the cutting off of a final before a following initial vowel (§ 612. e). 
Heptameter: consisting of seven feet. 



§642] TERMS OF PROSODY 435 

Hexameter: consisting of six measures. 

Hexapody: consisting of six feet. 

Hiatus: the meeting of two vowels without contraction or elision (§ 612. #). 

Ictus: the metrical accent (§ 611. a). 

Irrational: not conforming strictly to the unit of time (§ 609. e). 

Logaozdic: varying in rhythm, making the effect resemble prose (§ 623). 

Monometer : consisting of a single measure. 

Mora: the unit of time, equal to one short syllable (§ 608. a). 

Pentameter : consisting of five measures. 

Pentapody : consisting of five feet. 

Penthemimeris : consisting of five half-feet. 

Protraction: extension of a syllable beyond its normal length (608. c). 

Resolution: the use of two short syllables for one long (§ 610). 

Strophe: a series of verses making a recognized metrical whole (stanza)^ 

which may be indefinitely repeated. 
Synceresis: i (vowel) and u becoming consonants before a vowel (§ 603. 

e. *.,/. N. 4 ). 
Synalozpha: the same as elision (§ 612. e. n.). 
Synapheia: elision between two verses (§ 612. e. n.). 
Syncope: loss of a short vowel. 
Synizesis : the running together of two vowels without full contraction (§ 603 

c. N.). 
Systole: shortening of a syllable regularly long. 
Tetrameter : consisting of four measures. 
Tetrapody: consisting of four feet. 
Tetrastich: a system of four verses. 
Thesis: the accented part of a foot (§ 611). 
Trimeter: consisting of three measures. 
Tripody: consisting of three feet. 
Tristich : a system of three verseso 



INDEX OF VEBBS 



Regular verbs of the First, Second, and Fourth Conjugations are given only in 
special cases. Compounds are usually omitted when they are conjugated like the 
simple verbs. The figures after the verbs indicate the conjugation. References are 
to sections. For classified lists of important verbs see §209 (First Conjugation), 
§210 (Second Conjugation), § 211 (Third Conjugation), §212 (Fourth Conjugation), 
§§ 190, 191 (Deponents), § 192 (Semi-Deponents). 



ab-do, 3, -didi, -ditum, 209. a. n. 

ab-eo, see eo. 

ab-icio, 3, -ieci, -iectum [iacio]. 

ab-igo, 3, -egi, -actum [ago]. 

ab-nuo, 3, -nui, — . 

ab-oleo, 2, -evi, -itum. 

ab-olesco, 3, -evi, — [aboleo]. 

ab-ripio, 3, -ripui, -reptum [rapio]. 

abs-condo, 3, -di (-didi), -ditum [condo]. 

ab-sisto, 3, -stiti, — . 

ab-sum, abesse, afui, (afuturus). 

ac-cendo, 3, -cendi, -censum. 

accerso, see arcesso. 

ac-cidit (impers.), 207, 208. c. 

ac-cido, 3, -cidi, — [cado]. 

ac-cido, 3, -cidi, -cisum [caedo]. 

ac-cio, 4, reg. [cio]. 

ac-cipio, 3, -cepi, -ceptum [capio]. 

ae-eolo, 3, -ui, — . 

ac-credo, see credo. 

ac-cumbo, 3, -cubui, -itum. 

ac-curro, 3, -cum (-cucurri), -cursum. 

acesco, 3, -acui, — [co-]. 

ac-quiro, 3, -quisivi, -quisitum [quaero]. 

acuo, 3, -ui, -utum, 174, 176. d. 

ad-do, 3, -didi, -ditum, 209. a. n. 

ad-eo, see eo. 

ad-hibeo, 2, -ui, -itum [habeo]. 

ad-igo, 3, -egi, -actum [ago]. 

ad-imo, 3, -emi, -emptum [emo]. 

ad-ipiscor, -i, -eptus. 

ad-nuo, 3, -nui, — . 

ad-oleo, 2, -ui, — . 

ad-olesco, 3, -evi, -ultum. 

ad-sentior, -iri, -sensus. 

ad-sideo, 2, -sedi, -sessum [sedeo]. 

ad-sido, 3, -sedi, — . 

ad-spergo, 3, -spersi, -spersum [spargo]. 

ad-sto, 1, -stiti, — . 

ad-sum, -esse, -fui, (-futiirus). 

af-fari, affatus, 206. c. 

af-fero, -ferre, attuli, allatum. 

af-ficio, 3, -feci, -fectum [facio]. 



436 



af-fligo, 3, -xi, -ctum. 
ag-gredior, -i, -gressus [gradior]. 
agnosco, 3, -ovi, agnitum [nosco]. 
ago, 3, egi, actum. [For regular comps., 

see ab-igo ; for others, see cogo, circum^ 

per-.] 
aio, defect., 206. a. 
albeo, 2, -ui, — . 
alesco, 3, -ui, -alitum. 
algeo, 2, alsi, — . 
algesco, 3, alsi, — . 
al-lego, 3, -egi, -ectum. 
al-licio, 3, -lexi, — . 
alo, 3, alui, altum (alitum). 
amb-igo, 3, — , — [ago], 
ambio, -ire, -ii (-ivi), -itum (ambibat), 

203. d. 
amicio, 4, amixi (-cui), amictum. 
amo, 180, 184; amarim, amasse, amas- 

sem, 181. a; amassis, 183. 5. 
ango, 3, anxi, — . 
ante-cello, 3, — , — . 
ante-sto, 1, -steti, — . 
anti-sto, 1, -steti, — . 
aperio, 4, aperui, apertum. 
apiscor, -i, aptus [ad-ipiscor]. 
ap-pello, 3, -puli, -pulsum. 
ap-peto, 3, -petivi (-ii), -itum. 
ap-primo, 3, -pressi, -pressum [premo]. 
arceo, 2, -ui, — [co-erceo]. 
arcesso (accerso), 3, -ivi, arcessitum. 
ardeo, 2, arsi, (arsurus). 
ardesco, 3, arsi, — . 
areo, 2, — , — . 
aresco, 3, -arui, — . 
arguo, 3, -ui, -utum. 
ar-rigo, 3, -rexi, -rectum [reg5]. 
ar-ripio, 3, -ui, -reptum [rapio]. 
a-scendo, 3, -di, -scensum [scando]. 
a-spergo, see ad-spergo. 
a-spicio, 3, -exi, -ectum [-spicio]. 
at-tendo, 3, -di, -turn, 
at-tineo, 2, -tinui, -tentum [teneo]. 



INDEX OE VERBS 



437 



at-tingo, 3, -tigi, -tactum [tango]. 

at-tollo, 3, — , — [tollo]. 

audeo, audere, ausus, 192 (ausim, 183. 3 ; 

sodes, 13. n.). 
audio, 4, audivi, audi turn, 187 (contracted 

forms, 181. b). 
au-fero, -ferre, abstuli, ablatum. 
augeo, 2, auxl, auctum. 
ausim, see audeo. 
ave (have), avete, a veto, 206. g. 
aved, 2, — , — . 

balbutio, 4, — , — . 

batuo, 3, -ui, — . 

bibo, 3, bibi, (potum). 

bullio, 4, reg. (bullo, -are) [e-bullio]. 

cado, 3, cecidi, casum [ac-, con-, oc-cido], 
178. 6. 

caecutio, 4, — , — . 

caedo, 3, cecidi, caesum [ac-, oc-cido, etc.], 

cale-facio, like facio, 266. a. 

cale-facto, 1, — , — , 266. a. 

caleo, 2, -ui, (caliturus). 

calesco, 3, -ui, — . 

calleo, 2, -ui, — . 

calveo, 2, — , — . 

candeo, 2, -ui, — . 

candesco, 3, -candui, ■ — . 

caneo, 2, -ui, — . 

canesco, 3, canui, — . 

cano, 3, cecini, — [con-cino]. 

cantillo, 1, reg., 263. 3. 

capesso, 3, capessivi, — , 263." 2. b (in- 
cipisso, 3, — , — ). 

capio, 3, cepi, captum [ac-cipio etc. ; also 
ante-capio], 188. 

careo, 2, -ui, (-itiirus). 

carpo, 3, -psi, -ptum, 177. b [de-cerpo]. 

caveo, 2, ca^a, cautum. 

cavillor, -ari, -atus, 263. 3. 

cedo (imperative), cedite (cette), 206. g. 

cedo, 3, cessi, cessum. 

-cello (only in comp., see per-cello, ex- 
cello, ante-cello, prae-cello). 

-cendo, 3, -cendi, -censum (only in comp., 
as in-cendo) . 

censeo, 2, -ui, censum. 

cerno, 3, crevi, -ere turn. 

cieo a (-cio), ciere (-cire), civi, citum 
(-citum) [ac-cio, con-, ex-cio]. 

cingo, 3, cinxi, cinctum. 

-cio, see cieo. 

circum-do, -dare, -dedi, -datum, 209. a. N. 

circum-sisto, 3, -steti (-stiti), — . 

circum-spicio, 3, -exi, -ectum. 

circum-sto, 1, -stiti (-steti), — . 

clango, 3, — , — . 

claresco, 3, clarui, — . 

claudeo, 2, — , — , see claudo (limp). 

claudo (limp), 3, — , — . 



claudo (close), 3, clausi, clausum [ex- 

cludo] . 
clued, 2, — , — . 
co-emo, 3, -emi, -emptum. 
coepi, -isse, coepturus, 205. 
co-erceo, 2, -ui, -itum [arceo]. 
co-gnosco, 3, -gnovi, -gnitum [nosco]. 
cogo, 3, coegi, coactum, 15. 3 [ago], 
col-lido, 3, -HsI, lisum [laedo]. 
col-ligo, 3, -legi, -lectum. 
col-liiceo, 2, — , — [luceo]. 
colo, 3, colui, cultum [ex-, ac-, in-], 
comburo, 3, -ussi, -ustum [tiro], 
com-edo, 3 (esse), -edi, -esum (-estum). 
com-miniscor, -I, -mentus. 
como, 3, compsi, comptum. 
com-pello, 3, -puli, -pulsum. 
com-perco, 3, -persi, — [parco]. 
comperio, 4, -peri, compertum. 
comperior, -hi, compertus, 191. n. 
com-pesco, 3, -cui, — . 
com-pingo, 3, -pegi, -pactum [pango]. 
com-pleo, 2, -evi, -etum. 
com-primo, 3, -press!, -pressum [premo]. 
com-pungo, 3, -punxi, -piinctum [pungo]. 
con-cido, 3, -cidi, — [cado]. 
con-cido, 3, -cidi, -cisum [caedo]. 
con-cino, 3, -ui, — [cano]. 
con-cipio, 3, -cepi, -ceptum [capio]. 
con-cio (-cieo), 4 (2), -civi, -citum (-citum). 
con-cludo, 3, -clusi, -clusum [claudo]. 
con-cupisco, 3, -cupivi, -cupitum. 
con-curro, 3, -curii (-cucurri), -cursum. 
con-cutio, 3, -cussi, -cussum [quatio]. 
con-do, 3, -didi, -ditum, 209. a. n. 
co-necto, 3, -nexui, -nexum, 16. 
con-fercio, 4, — , -fertum [farcio], 
con-fero, -ferre, -tuli, collatum. 
con-flcio, 3, -feci, -f ectum [facio]. 
con-fit, defect., 204. c. 
con-fiteor, -eri, -fessus [fateor]. 
con-fringo, 3, -fregi, -fractum [frango]. 
con-gruo, 3, -ui, — [-gruo]. 
con-icio, 3, -ieci, -iectum, 6. d [iacio]. 
co-nitor, -i, -nisus (-nixus), 16. 
co-niveo, 2, -nivl (-nixi) , — , 16. 
con-quiro, 3, -quisivi, -quisitum [quaero]. 
con-sisto, 3, -stiti, — _. 
con-spergo, 3, -spersi, -spersum [spargo]. 
con-spicio, 3, -spexi, -spectum, 174_. 
con-stituo, 3, -p, -stitutum [statuo]. 
con-sto, 1, -stiti (-staturus) (constat, 207). 
con-sue-facio, like facio, 266. a. 
con-suesco, 3, -evi, -etum (consuerat, 

181. a), 
con-sulo, 3, -ui, -sultum. 
con-tendo, 3, -tendi, -tentum. 
con-ticesco, 3, -ticui, — . 
con-tineo, 2, -tinui, -tentum [teneo]. 
con-tingo, 3, -tigi, -tactum [tango] (con- 

tingit, impers., 208. c). 



438 



INDEX OF VERBS 



con-tundo, 3, -tudi, -tusum [tundo]. 

coquo, 3, coxi, coctum. 

cor-rigo, 3, -rexi, -rectum [rego]. 

cor-ripio, 3, -ripui, -reptum [rapio]. 

cor-ruo, 3, -ill, — [ruoj. 

crebresco, 3, -crebrui, — [in-, per-]. 

credo, 3, -didi, -ditum, 209. a. n. [-do]. 

crepo, 1, -ui (-crepavi), -crepitum. 

cresco, 3, crevi, cretum, 176. b. 1. 

crocio, 4, — , — . 

crudesco, 3, -crudui, — [re-]. 

cubo, 1, -ui (cubavi), -cubitum. 

cudo, 3, -cudi, -cusum [in-ciido]. 

-cumbo [cub] (see ac-cumbo ; compounds 

with de-, ob-, pro-, re-, and sub-, lack 

the p.p.). 
cupio, 3, cupivi, cupitum, 174. 
-cupisco, 3, see con-cupisco. 
curro, 3, cucurri, cursum [in-eurro]. 

debeo, 2, -ui, -itum, 15. 3. 

de-cerpo, 3, -cerpsi, -cerptum [carpo]. 

decet (impers.), decere, decuit, 208. c. 

de-cipio, 3, -cepi, -ceptum [capio]. 

de-curro, 3, -curri (-cucurri), -cursum. 

de-do, 3, -didi,_ -ditum [do], 209. a. n. 

de-fendo, 3, -di, -fensum, 178. 6. N. x . 

de-fetiscor, -i, -fessus. 

de-fit, defect., 204. c. 

dego, 3, — , — [ago]. 

delectat (impers.), 208. c. 

deleo, 2, -evi, -etum. 

de-libuo, 3, -libui, -libutum. 

de-ligo, 3, -legi,_-lectum [lego]. 

demo, 3, dempsi, demptum. 

de-pello, 3, -pull, -pulsum. 

de-primo, 3, -pressi, -pressum [premo]. 

depso, 3, -sui, -stum. 

de-scendo, 3, -di, -scensum [scando]. 

de-silio, 4, -silui (-silii), [-sultum] [salio]. 

de-sino, 3, -sii (-sivi), -situm [sino]. 

de-sipio, 3, — , — [sapio]. 

de-sisto, 3, -stiti, -stitum [sisto]. 

de-spicio, 3, -spexi, -spectum. 

de-spondeo, 2, -di, -sponsum [spondeo]. 

de-struo, 3, -struxi, -structum. 

de-sum, -esse, -fui, (-futurus) [sum]. 

de-tendo, 3, [-di], -sum. 

de-tineo, 3, -ui, -ten turn [teneo]. 

de-vertor, -1^ — . 

dico, 3, dixi, dictum, p. 87, footnote 4 

(dixti, 181. b. n. 2; die, 182). 
dif-fero, -ferre, distuli, dilatum [fero]. 
dif-fiteor, -eri, — [fateor]. 
di-gnosco, 3, -gnoyi, — [nosco]. 
di-ligo, 3, -lexi, -lectum [lego]. 
di-luo, 3, -lui, -liitum [luo]. 
di-mico, 1, -avi, -atum. 
di-nosco, see di-gnosco. 
dir-ibeo, 2, — , -itum [habeo]. 
dir-imo, 3, -emi, -emptum [emo]. 



di-ripio, 3, -ripui, -reptum [rapio]. 

di-ruo, 3, -rui, -rutum [ruo]. 

disco [dic] , 3, didici, — . [So compounds.] 

dis-crepo, 1, -ui or -avi, — . 

dis-curro, 3, -curri (-cucurri), -cursum. 

dis-icio, 3, dis-ieci, -iectum [iacio]. 

dis-pando, 3, — , -pansum (-pessum) [pan- 
do]. 

dis-sideo, 2, -sedi, — [sedeo]. 

dis-silio, 4, -ui,_ — . 

dis-tendo, 3, -di, -turn. 

di-stinguo, 3, -stinxi, -stinctum. 

di-sto, 1, — , — . 

ditesco, 3, — , — . 

di-vido, 3, -visi, -visum. 

do [da] (give), dare, dedi, datum, 174, 
176. e, 202, 209. a. n. (duim, perduim, 
183. 2). 

-do [dha] (put), 3, -didi, -ditum (only in 
comp. , see ab-do, credo, vendo) , 209. a. N. 

doceo, 2, -ui, doctum. 

doleo, 2, -ui, (-iturus). 

-dolesco, 3,_-dolui, — [con-]. 

domo, 1, -ui, -itum. 

-dormisco, 3 L -dormivi, — [con-]. 

duco, 3, duxi, ductum (due, 182). 

dulcesco, 3, — , — . 

duresco, 3, durui, — . 

e-bullio, 4, ebullii, — . 

edo (eat), 3, edere (esse), edi, esum, 201. 

e-do (put forth), 3, -didi, -ditum, 209. a. N. 

ef-fero, -ferre, extuli, elatum. 

ef-ficio, 3, -feci, -fectum [facio]. 

egeo, 2, -ui, — . 

e-icio, 3, -ieci, -iectum [iacio]. 

e-licio, 3, -ui, -citum. 

e-ligo, 3, -legi, -lectum [lego]. 

e-mico, 1, -micui, -micatum. 

e-mineo, 2, -ui, — [-mineo]. 

emo, 3, emi, emptum, 15. 11 [ad-, dir-imo, 
co-emo] . 

e-neco, 1, -ui(-avi), -nectum (-atum) [neco] . 

ens, seesum. 

eo, ire, ii (ryi), itum, 203 (itum est, 203. a; 
iri, id. ; itur, impers., 208. d; ad-eo, ad- 
eor, in-eo L 203. a; ambio, 203. c?;_prod- 
eo, -ire, -ii, -itum, 203. e). See veneo. 

e-rigo, 3, -rexi, -rectum. 

escit, escunt (see sum), 170. b. n. 

esurio, 4, — , esuriturus, 263. 4. 

e-vado, 3, -vasi, -vasum (evasti, 181. b. n. 2 ). 

e-vanesco, 3, evanui, — . 

e-venit (impers.), 207, 208. c. 

e-vilesco, 3, -vilui, — . 

ex-cello, 3, -cellui, -celsum. 

ex-cio (-cieo), 4 (2), -ivi (-ii), -itum (-itum). 

ex-cipio, 3, -cepi, -ceptum [capio]. 

ex-cludo, 3, -clusi, -clusum [claudo]. 

ex-colo, 3, -ui, -cultum [colo]. 

ex-curro, 3, -curri (-cucurri) * -cursum. 



INDEX OF VERBS 



439 



ex-erceo, 2, -cui, -citum [arceo]. 

ex-imo, 3, -emi, -emptuni [emo]. 

ex-olesco, 3, -olevi, -oletum. 

ex-pello, 3, -pull, -pulsum. 

ex-pergiscor, 3, -perrectus. 

ex-perior, 4, -pertus. 

ex-pleo, 2, -evi, -etum._ 

ex-plico, 1, {unfold), -ui, -itum; {explain), 

-avi, -a turn, 
ex-plodo, 3, -si, -sum [plaudo]. 
ex-pungo, 3, -piinxi, -punctum. 
ex-(s)ilio, 3, -ui (-ii), — [salio]. 
ex-sisto, 3_, -stiti, -stitum. 
ex-stinguo, 3, -stinxi, -stinctum. 
ex-sto, 1, — , (-staturus). 
ex-tendo, 3, -di, -turn (-sum), 
exuo, 3, -ui, -iitum. 

facesso, 3, facessivi (facessi), facessi turn, 

263. 2. b. 
facio, 3, feci, factum, 204 (fac, 182; faxo, 

-im, 183. 3 ; con-ficio and other conrps. 

in -ficio, 204. a; bene-facio etc., 204. b; 

con-sue-facio, cale-facio, cale-facto, 266. 

a). 
-facto, 1 (in compounds), 266. a. 
fallo, 3,fefelli,falsum, 177. c, 178. b. n. 4 . 
farcio, 4, farsi, fartum [re-fercio]. 
fateor, -eri, fassus [con-fiteor]. 
fatisco, 3, — , — . 
faveo, 2, favi, fautum. 
-fendo, 3, -fendi, -fensum, see defendo. 
ferio, 4, — , — . 
fero, ferre, tuli, latum, 176. d. n. 1 , 200 

(fer, 182) [af-, au-, con-, dif-, ef-, in-, 

of-, re-, suf-fero]. 
ferveo, 2, fervi (ferbui), — ; also, fervo, 3. 
fervesco, 3, -fervi (-ferbui), — . 
fido, fidere, fisus, 192 [con-fido]. 
figo, 3, fTxi, fixum. 
findo [fid], 3, fidi, fissum, 176. c. 2, 

177. c. N. 
fingo [fig], 3, finxi, fictum, 177. b. n. 
fio, fieri, factus, 204 (see facio) (fit, im- 

pers., 208. c; confit, defit, infit, effieri, 

interfieri, interfiat, superfit, 204. c). 
flecto, 3, flexi, flexum. 
fleo, 2, -evi, -etum, 176. e (flestis, 181. a), 
-fligo, only in comp., see af-fligo. 
floreo, 2, -ui, — . 
floresco, 3, florui, — . 
fluo, 3, fliixi, fluxnm, 261. N« 
fodio, 3, fodi, fossum. 
[for], fari, fatus, 179. a, 206. c (af-fari, pro- 

fatus, prae-, inter-fatur, etc., 206. c). 
fore, forem, etc., see sum. 
foveo, 2, fovi, fotum. 
frango [frag], 3, fregi, fractum, 176. b. 1 

fper-f ringo] . 
fremo, 3, fremui, — . 
frendo, 3, — , f re sum (fressum). 



frico, 1, -ui, frictum (fricatum). 

frigeo, 2, —, — . 

frigesco, 3, -fnxi, — [per-, re-]. 

frigo, 3, fnxi, frictum. 

frondeo, 2, — , — . 

fruor, -i, fructus. 

fuam, -as, etc. (see sum), 170. b. N. 

fugio, 3, fugi L (fugiturus). 

fulcio, 4, fulsi, fultum. 

fulgeo, 2, -si, — . 

fulgo, 3, — , — . 

fulgurat (impers.), 208. a. 

fundo [fud], 3, fudi, fusuin, 176. b. 1. 

fungor, -i, functus. 

furo, 3, — , — . 

fuvimus, fuvisset (see sum), 170. 6. n. 

gannio, 4, — ,_— . 

gaudeo, gaudere, gavisus, 192. 

-gemisco, 3, -gemui, — . 

gemo, 3, gemui, — . 

gero, 3, gessi, gestum. 

gestio, 4, -ivi, — , 262. a. 

gigno [gen], 3, genui, genitum, 176. c. 1 

glisco, 3, — , — . 

glubo, 3, — , — . 

gradior, -i, gressus [ag-gredior]. 

grandinat (impers.), 208. a. 

-gruo, 3, see con-, in-gruo. 

habeo, 2, -ui, -itum [in-hibeo; debeo; 

dir-ibeo] . 
haereo, 2, haesi, haesum. 
haeresco, 3, — ,_ — . 

haurio, 4, hausi, haustum (hausurus). 
have, see ave. 
hebeo, 2, — , — . 
hebesco, 3, — , — . 
hinnio, 4, — , — . 
hirrio, 4, — , — . 
hisco, 3, — , — [de-hisco]. 
horreo, 2, horrui, — . 
horresco, 3, -horrui, — . 

ico, 3, ici, ictum. 

ignosco, 3, -noyi, -notum [nosco], 

il-licio, 3, -lexi, -lectum [-licio]. 

il-lido, 3, -lisi, -lisum [laedo]. 

imbuo, 3, -ui, -utum. 

im-mineo, 2, — , — [-mineo]. 

im-pello, 3, -puli, -pulsum [pello]. 

im-petro, 1, reg. (-assere, 183. 5). 

im-pingo, 3, -pegi, -pactum [pango]. 

im-pleo, 2, -evi, -etum. 

im-plico, 1, -avi (-ui), -atum (-itum). 

in-cendo, 3, -di, -sum. 

in-cesso, 3, incessivi, — . 

in-cido, 3, -cidi, (-casiirus) [cado]. 

in-cido, 3, -cidi, -cisum [caedo]. 

in-cipio, 3, -cepi, -ceptum [capio]. 

in-cludo, 3, -si, -sum [claudo]. 



440 



INDEX OF VERBS 



in-colo, 3, -colui, — [col5]. 

in-crepo, 1, -ui (-avi), -itum. 

in-curro, 3, -cum (-cucurri), -cursum. 

in-cutio, 3, -cussi, -cussum. 

ind-igeo, 2, -ui, — [egeo]. 

ind-ipiscor, 3, -eptus [apiscor], 

in-do, 3, -didi, -ditum, 209. a. n. 

indulgeo, 2, indulsi, indultum. 

induo, 3, -ui, -utum. 

ineptio, 4, — , — . 

in-fero, -ferre, -tuli, illatum. 

in-fit, see fio. 

in-gredior, 3, -gressus [gradior], 

in-gruo, 3, -ui, — [-gruo]. 

in-hibeo, 2, -ui, -itum [habeo]. 

in-olesco, 3, -olevi, — . 

inquam, defect., 206. b. 

in-quiro, 3, -quisivi, -quisitum [quaero]. 

in-sideo, 2, -sedi, -sessum [sedeo]. 

in-sido, 3, -sedi, -sessum. 

in-silio, 3, -ui, [-sultumj [salio]. 

in-sisto, 3, -stiti, — . 

in-spicio, 3, -spexi, -spectum. 

in-stituo, 3, -ui, -utum [statuo]. 

in-sto, 1, -stiti, (-statiirus). 

intel-lego, 3, -lexi, -lectum. 

inter-do, -dare, -dedi, -datum, 209. a. n. 

inter-est, -esse, -fuit (impers.), 208. b. 

inter-fatur, see for. 

inter-ficio, 3, -feci, -fectum [facio]. 

inter-sto, 1, -steti, — , 209. a. n. 

in-tueor, -eri, -tuitus [tueor]. 

irascor, -i, iratus. 

ir-ruo, 3, -rui, — [ruo]. 

iaceo, 2, -ui, — . 

iacio, 3, ieci, iactum [ab-icio, etc.; dis- 

icio, porr-icio]. 
iubeo, 2, iussi, iussum (iusso, 183. 3). 
iudico, 1, reg. (-assit, 183. 5). 
iungo, 3, iiinxi, iiinctum. 
iuvenesco, 3, — , — . 
iuvo (ad-), 1, iiivi, iiitum (-atiirus). 

labasco, 3,_ — , — . 

labor, -i, lapsus. 

lacesso, 3, lacessivi, lacessitum, 263. b. 

laedo, 3, laesi, laesum [il-lido]. 

lambo, 3, — , — . 

langueo, 2, langui, — . 

languesco, 3, langui, — . 

lateo, 2, -ui, — . 

latesco, 3, -litui, — [de-litesco] . 

lavo, 3, lavi, lautum (lotum) (also reg. of 

1st con j .) . 
lego, 3, legi, lectum [for compounds see 

211. e, footnote, also de-ligo, di-ligo, 

intel-lego, neglego]. 
levo, 1, reg. (-asso, 183. 5). 
libet (lubet), -ere, -uit, 208. c (libitum est ; 

libens). 



liceo, 2, licui, — . 

licet, -ere, licuit, (-iturum), 207, 208. i 

(licitum est, licens) . 
-licio, 3 [for lacio, only in comp. ; see al- 

licio, e-licio, pel-licio]. 
lino [li], 3, levi (livi), litum. 
linquo [lic], 3, -liqui, -lictum. 
liqueo, 2, liqui (licui), — . 
liquesco, 3, -licui, — . 
liquor, -i, — . 
liveo, 2, — , — . 
loquor, -i, lociitus, 261. n. 
luceo, 2, luxi, — . 
lucesco (-Cisco), 3, -luxi, — [il-]. 
liido, 3, lusi, lusum. 
lugeo, 2, luxi, — . 
luo, 3, lui, -lutum [de-luo, solvo]. 

madeo, 2, madui, — . 

madesco, 3, madui, — . 

maereo, 2, — , — . 

malo, malle, malui, — , 199 (mavolo, ma- 

yelim, mavellem, id. n.). 
mando, 3, mandi, mansum. 
maneo, 2, mansi, mansum [per-maneo]. 
inansuesco, see -suesco. 
marcesco, 3, -marcui, — [e-]. 
matiiresco, 3, matiirui, — . 
medeor, -eri, — . 
memini, defect., 205. 
mereo or mereor, merere or -eri, meritus, 

190.^. 
mergo, 3, mersi, mersum. 
metior, -iri, mensus. 
me to, 3, messui, -messum. 
metuo, 3, -ui, -utum. 
mico, 1, micui, — . 

-mineo, 2, -ui, — [e-, im-, pro-mineo]. 
-miniscor, -i, -mentus [com-, re-], 
minuo, 3, -ui, -utum. 
miror, mirari, miratus. 
misceo, 2, -cui, mixtum (mistum). 
misereor, -eri, miseritus (misertus), 208. 

b. n. 
miseret, impers., 208. b. 
mite sco, 3, — , — . 
mitto, 3, misi, missum, 176. d. N. 2 . 
molior, -iri, -itus. 
molo, 3, molui, molitum. 
moneo, 2, -ui, -itum, 185. 
mordeo, 2, momordi, morsum. 
morior, -i (-iri), mortuus (moritiirus). 
moveo, 2, movi, motum (commorat, 181. a), 
mulceo, 2, mulsi, mulsum. 
mulgeo, 2, -si, mulsum. 
muttio, 4, -ivi, — . 

nanciscor, -i, nactus (nanctus). 
nascor, -i,_natus. 

neco, 1, -avi (-ui), -atum, 209, footnote 2 
[e-neco]. 



INDEX OF VERBS 



441 



necto [nec], 3, nexi (nexul), nexum. 

neglego, 3, neglexi, -lectum, 211. e, foot- 
note 2. 

neo, 2, nevi, — . 

nequeo, defect., 206. d. 

nigresco, 3, nigrui", — . 

ningit, 3, nlnxit (impers.), 208. a. 

niteo, 2, — , — . 

nitesco, 3, nitui", — . 

nitor, -l, nisus (nixus) . 

-niveo, 2, -nivi (-nixi) , — . 

no, 1, navi, — , 179. a. 

noceo, 2, nocui, — . 

nolo, nolle, nolui, — , 199 (nevis, nevolf, 
id. n.). 

nosco [gno], 3, novi, notum [ag-, cog-, di(g)-, 
lg-nosco], 205. b. N. 2 (nosse, 181. a). 

notesco, 3, -m, — . 

nubo, 3, nupsi, nuptum. 

-nuo, 3, -nui, — [ab-, ad-nuo]. 

ob-do, 3, -didi, -ditum, 209. a. N. 

ob-liviscor, -I, oblitus. 

ob-mutesco, 3 1 -mutui, — . 

ob-sideo, 2, -sedi, -sessum [sideo] . 

ob-sido, 3, — , — . 

ob-sisto, 3, -stiti, -stitam. 

ob-solesco, 3, -evi, -etum. 

ob-sto, 1, -stiti, (-statiirus). 

ob-tineo, 2, -m, -tentum [teneo]. 

ob-tingit (impers.), 208. c. 

ob-tundo, 3, -tudi, -tiisum (-tiinsum). 

ob-venit (impers.), 208. c. 

oc-callesco, 3, -callui, — . 

oc-cido, 3, -cidi, - casum [cado]. 

oc-cido, 3, -cidi, -cisum [caedo]. 

oc-cino, 3, -cinui, — [cano]. 

oc-cipio, 3, -cepi, -ceptum. 

occulo, 3, occulul, occultum. 

oc-curro, 3, -curri (-cucurri), -cur sum. 

odi, odisse, osurus (perosus), 205. 

of-fero, -ferre, obtuli, oblatum. 

-oleo (grow) [see ab-, ad-] . 

oleo (smell), 2, olui, — . 

operio, 4, operui, opertum. 

oportet, -ere, -uit (impers.), 208. c. 

op-pango, 3, -pegi, -pactum [pango]. 

opperior, -in, oppertus. 

op-primo, 3, -pressi, -pressum [premo]. 

ordior, -iri, orsus. 

orior (3d), -iri, ortus (oriturus) (so 

comps.), 174, 191. 
os-tendo, 3, -tend!, -tentum. 
ovare, ovatus, defect., 206./. 

paciscor, -I, pactus. 

paenitet (impers.), -ere, -uit, 208. b 

(-turus, -tendus, id. n.). 
palleo, 2, pallui, — . 
pallesco, 3, pallui, — . 
pando, 3, pandi, pansum (passum) [dis-] . 



pango [pag], 3, pepigi (-pegT), pactum 

[im-pingo; op-pango]. 
pared, 3, peperci (parsi), (parsurus). 
pareo, 2, -ui, paritum (late) . 
pario, 3, peperi, partum (pariturus) 

[com-, re-perio]. 
partior, -iri, -ltus, 190. 
parturio, 4 2 — , — . 
pasco, 3, pavi,_ pastum. 
pateo, 2, patui, — . 
patior, -l, passus [per-petior]. 
paveo, 2, pavi, — . 
pavesco, 3, -pavi, — [ex-], 
pecto, 3, pexi, pexum. 
pel-licio, 3, -lexi, -lectum [-licio]. 
pello, 3, pepuli, pulsum, 176. d. n. 2 , 178 

6. n. 4 [ap-pello,_ com-pello, etc.]. 
pendeo, 2, pependi, -pensum. 
pendo, 3, pependi, pensum. 
per-ago, 3, -egi, -actum, 
per-cello, 3, -cull, -culsum. 
per-cio, see cio ; p : p. -citus. 
per-curro, 3, -curri (-cucurri), -cursum. 
per-do, 3, -didi, -ditum, 209. a. n. 
per-ficio, 3, -feci, -fectum [facio]. 
per-fringo, 3, -fregi, -fr actum [frango]. 
pergo, 3, perrexl, perrectum. 
per-lego, 3, -legi, -lectum [lego], 
per-osus, see odi. 
per-petior, -l, -pessus. 
per-quiro, 3, -quisivi, -quisitum [quaero]. 
per-spicio, 3, -spexi, -spectum. 
per-sto, 1, -stiti, — . 
per-tineo, 2, -ui, — [teneo]. 
per-tundo, 3, -tudi, -tiisum. 
pessum-do, like do, 209. a. n., 428. i. 
petesso (petisso) ,3, — ,_ — , 263. 2. b. 
peto, 3, petivi (-h), petitum, 177./. 
piget (impers.), -ere, piguit, 208. b (pigi- 

tum est, id. n.). 
pingo [pig], 3, pinxi, pictum. 
pinso, 3, -si, pins- (pmstum, pistum). 
piso, 3, pisivi (-ii), pistum (see pinso). 
placeo, 2, -ui, -itum (placet, impers., 

208. c). 
plango, 3, planxi, planctum. 
plaudo, 3, plausi, plausum [ex-plodo, etc. ; 

ap-plaudo] . 
plecto, 3, plexi, plexum, 174, 176. b. 1. 
-plector, -I, -plexus, 
-pleo, 2, -pie vi, -pie turn (only in comps., 

as com-pleo) . 
plico, 1, -plicui (-plica vi), -plicitum (-pli- 

catum) . 
pluit, 3, pluit (pliivit), 174, 208. a (pluunt, 

id.N.). 
polleo, 2, — , — . 
polluo, 3, -ui, -iitum [luo]. 
pono, 3, posui, positum. 
porr-icio, 3, — , -rectum [iacio]. 
por-rigo (porgo), 3, -rexi, -rectum. 



442 



INDEX OF VERBS 



posco, 3, poposci, — (so comps.). 
possideo, 2, -sedi, -sessum [sedeo]. 
possido, 3, -sedi, -sessum. 
possum, posse, potui, — , 198. b (potis sum, 

pote sum, possiem, poterint, potisit, 

potestur, possitur, id., footnote). 
potior, -iri,_potitus. 
poto, 1, -a vi, -atum (potum). 
praebeo, 2, -ui, -itum [habeo]. 
prae-cello, 3, — , — [-cello]. 
prae-cino, 3, -cinui, — [cano]. 
prae-curro, 3, -cum (-cucurri), -cur sum. 
prae-fatur, 206. c. 
prae-lego, 3, -legi, -lectum [lego], 
prae-sagio, 4, -ivi, — . 
prae-sens, 170. b (see sum), 
prae-sideo, 2, -sedi, — [sedeo]. 
prae-sto, 1, -stiti, -stitum (-statum) (prae- 

stat, impers., 208. c). 
prae-sum, -esse, -fuT, (-futiirus). 
prandeo, 2, prandi, pransum. 
prehendo (prendo), 3, -di, prehensum 

(prensum) . 
premo, 3, press!, pressum [re-primo]. 
prendo, see prehendo. 
pro-curro, 3, -curri (-cucurri) , -cursum. 
prod-eo, 4, -ii, -itum, 203. e. 
prod-igo, 3, -egi, -actum [ago]. 
pro-do, 3, -didi, -ditum, 209. a. n. 
pro-fat us, 206. c. 
pro-ficio, 3, -feci, -fectum. 
pro-ficiscor, -I, profectus. 
pro-fiteor, -eri, -fessus. 
pro-mineo, -ere, -ui, — . 
promo, 3, -mpsi, -mptum, 15. 3. 
pro-silio, 3, -ui (-ivi), — [salio]. 
pro-sum, prodesse, profui (-futurus), 198. 

a. 
pro-tendo,_3, -di, -tentus (-sus). 
psallo, 3, -l, — . 
pubesco, 3, piibui, — . 
pudet (impers.), pudere, puduit or pudi- 

tum est, 208. b (pudendus, id. n.). 
puerasco, 3, — , — . 

pungo [pug], 3, pupugl, piinctum [com-], 
piitesco, 3, putui, — . 

quaero, 3, quaesivi, quaesitum [re-quiro] 

(cf. quaeso). 
quaeso, 3, defect., 206. e (cf. quaero). 
quasso, 1, reg., 263. 2. 
quatio, 3, -cussi, quassum [con-cutio]. 
queo, quire, quivi, quitus, 206. d (quitur, 

etc., id. n.) ; cf. nequeo. 
queror, -I, questus. 
qiiiesco, 3, quievi, quietum. 

rabo (rabio), 3, — , — . 
rado, 3, rasi,_rasum. 

rapio, 3, rapui, raptum (erepsemus, 181. b. 
N. 2 [ab-ripio etc.]. 



re-cido, 3, reccidi, (recasiirus) [cado]. 
re-cido, 3, -cidi, -cisum [caedo]. 
re-cipio, 3, -cepi, -ceptum [capio] (recepso, 

183.3). 
re-cludo, 3, -si, -sum. 
red-do, 3, reddidi, redditum, 209. a. n. 
red-igo, 3, -egi,_-actum [ago], 
red-imo, 3, -emi, -emptum. 
re-fello, 3, -felli, — [fallo]. 
re-fercio, 4, -fersi, -fertum [farcio]. 
re-fero, -ferre, rettuli, relatum [fero]. 
re-fert, -ferre, -tulit (impers.), 208. c. 
re-ficio, 3, -feci, -fectum. 
rego, 3, rexi, rectum [ar-rigo etc. ; pergo, 

surgo] . 
re-linquo, 3, -liqui, -lictum [linquo]. 
re-miniscor, -i, — . 
renideo, 2, — , — . 
reor, reri, rat us. 

re-pello, 3, reppuli (repuli), repulsum. 
reperio, 4, repperi, repertum. 
repo, 3, repsi, — . 

re-primo, 3, -press!, -pressum [premo]. 
re-quiro, 3, -siv!, -si turn [quaero]. 
re-sideo, 2, -sedi, — . 
re-silio, 4, -u! (-i!),_— . 
re-sipisco, 3, -sipivi, — [sapio]. 
re-sisto, 3, -stit!, — . 
re-spergo, 3, -si, -sum [spargo]. 
re-spondeo, 2, -di, -sponsum [spondeo]. 
re-stat (impers.), 208. c. 
re-sto, 1, -stiti, — , 209. a. n. 
re-tendo, 3, -di, -turn (-sum), 
re-tineo, 2, -tinu!, -tentum [teneo]. 
re-tundo, 3, rettud!, retunsum (-tusum). 
re-vertor, -i, reversus, 191 (revert!, -eram, 

id. n.). 
rideo, 2, risi, -risum. 
rigeo, 2, rigui, — . 
rigesco, 3, rigui, — . 
ringor, 3, rictus, 
rodo, 3, rosi, rosum. 
rubeo, 2, — , — . 
rube sco, 3, rubui, — . 
rudo, 3, rudivi, — . 
rumpo [eup], 3, rup!, ruptum. 
ruo, 3, rui, rutum (ruiturus), 176. e [di-, 

cor-]. 

saepio, 4, saeps!, saeptum. 

sagio, 4, see prae-sagio. 

salio, 4, salm (salii), [saltum] [de-silio]. 

salve, salvere, 206. g. 

sancio [sac], 4, sanxi, sanctum, 177. b. N. 

sanesco, 3, -sanui, — [con-]. 

sapio, 3, sapii, — . 

sarcio, 4, sars!, sartum. 

satis-do, -dare_, -dedi, -datum, 209. a. n. 

scabo, 3, scab!, — . 

scalpo, 3, scalpsi, scalptum. 

scando,3, -scend!,-scensum [a-scendo,etc.]. 



INDEX OF VEKBS 



443 



scate5 (scato) , -ere or -ere, — , — . 

scaturio, 4, — , — . 

scin' ( = scisne), 13. n. (see scio). 

scindo [sero], 3, scidi, scissum, 177. c. N. 

seio, 4, -ivi,_scitum (scin', 13. n.). 

scisco, 3, scivi, scitum. 

scribo, 3, scrips!, scriptum, 178. b. n. 1 . 

sculpo, 3, sculpsi,_ sculptum. 

se-cerno, 3, -crevi, -cretum. 

seco, 1, -ui, sectum (also secaturus). 

sedeo, 2, sedi, sessum [ad-, pos-sideo, 

etc. ; super-sedeo] . 
se-ligo, 3, -legi, -lectum [lego] . 
senesco, 3, -senui, — . 
sentio, 4, sensi, sensum. 
sepelio, 4, sepelivi, sepultum. 
sequor, -i, secutus, 190. 
sero (entvnne), 3, serui, sertum. 
sero (sow), 3, sevi, satum. 
serpo, 3, serpsi, — . 
sido, 3, sidi (-sedi), -sessum. 
sileo, 2, -ui, — . 
singultio, 4, -ivi, — . 

sino, 3, sivi, situm (slris, etc., 181. 6. n. 1 ). 
sisto [sta] l 3, stiti, statum. 
sitio, 4, -ivi, — . 
sodes ( = si audes), 13. n. 
soleo, solere,_solitus, 192. 
solvo, 3, solvi, solutum, 177. e, 261. n. 
sono, 1, -ui, -itum (-aturus). 
sorbeo, 2, sorbin (rarely sorpsi), — . 
spargo, 3, sparsi, sparsum [ad-spergo]. 
sperno, 3, sprevi, spretum, 177. a. n. 
-spicio, 3, -spexi, -spectum. 
splendeo, 2, -ui, — . _ 
spondeo, 2, spopondi, sponsum [re-]. 
spuo, 3, -spui, — . 
squaleo, 2, — , — . 

statuo, 3, -ui, -utuni, 176. d [con-stituo] . 
sterno, 3, stravi, stratum, 177. a. n. 
sternuo, 3, sternui, — . 
sterto, 3, -stertui, — . 
-stinguo, 3, -stinxi, -stmctum (in comp., 

as ex-) . 
sto, stare, steti, -statum (-stit-), 209. a, 

and n. 
strepo, 3, strepui, — . 
strideo, 2, stridi, — . 
strido, 3, stridi, — . 
stringo, 3, strmxi, strictum. 
struo, 3, striixi, structum. 
studeo, 2, -ui, — . 
stupeo, 2, stupui, — . 
stupe sco, 3, -stupui, — . 
suadeo, 2, suasi, suasum. 
sub-do, 3, -didi, -ditum, 209. a. n. 
sub-igo, 3, -egi, -actum [ago], 
suc-cido, 3, -cidi, — [cado]. 
suc-cido, 3, -cidi, -cisum [caedo]. 
suc-curro, 3, -curri, -cursum. 
suesco, 3, suevi, suetum. 



suf-fero, sufferre, sustuli, sublatum. 

suf-ficio, 3, -feci, -fectus [facio]. 

suf-fodio, 3, -fodi^ -fossum. 

sug-gero, 3, -gessi, -gestum. 

sugo, 3, suxi, suetum. 

sultis ( = si vultis) , 13. n. 

sum, esse, fui, (futurus), 170; fui (forem, 

fore, 170. a; fsons, -sens, ens, id. b; 

fuvimus, fuvisset, siem, fuam, fuas, 

escit, escunt, id. b. n.; homost, etc., 

13. N.). 
siimo, 3, sumpsi, sumptum, 15. 11. 
suo, 3, sui, sutum. 

super-do, -dare, -dedi, -datum, 209. a. n. 
super-fit, defect., 204. c. 
super-fluo, 3, — , -— [fluo]. 
super-sto, 1, -steti, — . 
super-sum, see sum (superest, impers., 

208. c). 
surdesco, 3, surdui, — . 
surgo (sur-rigo), 3, surrexi, surrectum. 
sur-ripio, 3, -ui (surpui), -reptum [rapio]. 

tabeo, 2, -ui, — ._ 

tabesco, 3, tabui, — . 

taedet (impers.), -ere, taeduit, pertaesum 

est, 208. b. 
tango [tag], 3, tetigi, tactum, 176. c. 2 

[con-tingo]. 
tego, 3, texi, tectum, 186. 
temno, 3, -tempsi, -temptum, 176. b. 1. 
tendo [ten], 3, tetendi, tentum. 
teneo, 2, tenui, -tentum [con-tin eo, etc.]. 
tepesco, 3, tepui, — . 
tergeo, 2, tersi, tersum. 
tergo, 3, tersi, tersum. 
tero, 3, trivi,_ tritum. 
texo, 3, texui, textum. 
timeo, 2, -ui, — . 
-time sco, 3, -timui, — . 
tingo (tinguo), 3, tinxi, tinctum,178. 6. N. 2 . 
tollo, 3, sustuli, sublatum, 211. /. n. 

[at-tollo] . 
tondeo, 2, -totondi (-tondi) , tonsum, 177. c. 
tono, 1, -ui, -tonitum (-tonatum). 
torpeo, 2, — , — . 
torqueo, 2, torsi, tortum. 
torreo, 2, torrui, tostum. 
tra-do, 3, -didi, -ditum, 209. a. n. 
traho,3,traxi, tractum (traxe, 181. b. N. 2 ). 
trans-curro, 3, -curri (-cucurri), -cursum. 
tremo, 3, tremui, — . 
tribuO, 3, tribui, tributum. 
trudo, 3, triisi, triisum. 
tueor, -eri, tuitus (tutus, adj.). 
tumeo, 2, — , — . 
tumesco, 3, -tumui, — [in-], 
tundo [tud], 3, tutudT, tunsum (-tusum) 

[ob-tundo]. 
turgeo, 2, tursi, — . 
tussio, 4. — ., — . 



444 



INDEX OF VERBS 



ulciscor, -I, ultus. 

ungo (-uo), 3, unxl, unctum. 

urgeo, 2, ursi, — . 

uro, 3, ussi, ustum (so comps., cf. also 

comburo). 
utor, -I, usus. 

vacat (impers.), 208. c* 

vado, 3, -vasi, -vasum. 

vagio, 4, -ii, — . 

valeo, 2, -ui, (-iturus). 

valesco, 3, -ui, — . 

vanesco, 3, -vanui, — [e-]. 

veho, 3, vexi, vectum. 

vello (vollo), 3, velli (-vulsi), vulsum. 

vendo, 3, -didi, -ditum, w 428. i. 

veneo (6e sold), 4, -ii, -itum, 428. i. 

venio {come), 4, veni, ventum, 19, 174. 

venum-do, -dare, -dedi, -datum, 209. a. N., 

428. i. 
vereor, -eri, -itus, 190. 
vergo, 3, — , — . 
verro (vorro), 3, -verri, versum. 



verto (vorto) , 3, verti, versum, 178. b, N. J 
(vertor, mid., 156. a. n.)„ 

vescor, -I, — . 

vesperascit (impers.), 208. a, 263. 1. 

veterasco, 3, Vetera vi, — . 

veto, 1, -ui, -itum. 

video, 2, vidi, visum. 

videor (seem), -eri, visus (videtur, im- 
pers., 208. c). 

vieo, 2, [vievi], -etuni. 

vigeo, 2, -ui, — . 

vm* (=visne, see volo). 

vincio, 4, vinxi, vinctum. 

vinco [vie], 3, vici, victum. 

vireo, 2, -ui, — . 

viso [vro], 3, visi, — , 263. 4, N. 

vivisco, 3, -vixi, — r, [re-]. 

vivo, 3, vixi, victum (vixet, 181. b. N. 2 ). 

volo, velle, volui, 199 (sultis, 13. n. 
199. n.; vin', 13. N.). 

volvo, 3, volvi, voliitum. 

vomo, 3, vomui, — . 

voveo, 2, vovi, votum. 



INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS 



Note. — The numerical references are to sections, with a few exceptions in which the 
page (p.) is referred to. The letters and some numerals refer to subsections. The 
letter n. signifies Note; ftn., footnote. Abl. = ablative; ace. = accusative ; adj.= 
adjective; adv. = adverb or adverbial; apod. = apodosis; app.=appositive or appo- 
sition; cf. = compare; comp.= compound or composition; compar. = comparative or 
comparison; con j.= conjugation or conjunction; constr.=construction; dat.=dative; 
gen. = genitive ; gend. = gender ; imv. = imperative ; ind. disc. = indirect discourse ; 
loc. = locative ; nom. = nominative ; prep. = preposition ; subj. = subject; subjv. = 
subjunctive ; vb. = verb ; w. = with. (Other abbreviations present no difficulty.) 



A, quantity of final, 604. d. 

a, ace. of Greek nouns in, 81. 2; as nom. 
ending, decl. Ill, gend., 84-87. 

a, in decl. I, 37; stem-vowel of conj. I, 
171, 174, 179. a, 259; in subjunctive, 
179; preps, in -a, adv. use of, 433. 4. 

a-, primary suffix, 234. I. 1. 

a (ab, abs), use, 220. 6, 221. 1, 429. o ; com- 
pounded with vbs., 267. a; w. abl. of 
agent, 405 ; w. place from which, 426. 1 ; 
w. names of towns, 428. a ; expressing 
position, 429. o ; as adv. expressing dis- 
tance, w. abl. of degree of difference, 
433. 3; in comps., w. dat., 381; in 
comps., w. abl., 402; w. abl. of ger- 
und, 507. 

a parte, 398, 429. b. 

ab and au in aufero, 200. a. N. 

Abbreviations of praenomens, 108. c. 

Ability, verbs of, constr., 456; in apod., 
517. c. 

Ablative, defined, 35. e; in -abus, 43. 
e; in-d, 43. n.i, 49. e, 80. ftn., 92./; 
of i-stems, decl. Ill, 74. e; rules of 
form, 76 ; nouns having abl. in -I, 76. a, 
b ; of decl. IV, in -ubus, 92. c ; abl. used 
as supine, 94. b ; of adjs., decl. Ill, 121. 
a. 1-4 ; preps, followed by, 220. b ; ad- 
verbial forms of, 214. e, cf . 215. 4. 

Ablative, Syntax, 398-420; classifica- 
tion and meaning, 398, 399. Separation, 
400; w.vbs. of freedom, 401; w. comps., 
402; w. adjs. of freedom etc., 402. a. 
Source and material, 403; w. partici- 
ples, id. a; w. constare etc., id. o; w. 
facere, id. c; w. nouns, id. d. Cause, 
404; causa, gratia, id. c. Agent, 405; 
means for agent, 405. b. n. *. Compari- 
son, 406; opinione, spe, etc., id. a; w. 



alius, 407. d; w. advs., id. e. Means, 
409; w. dono etc., 364; w. utor, fruor, 
etc., 410; w. opus and iisus, 411. Man- 
ner, 412. Accompaniment, 413. Degree 
of difference, 414; quo . . . eo, 414. 
a. Quality, 415; price, 416; charge or 
penalty, 353. 1. Specification, 418 ; w. 
dignus etc., id. b. Abl. Absolute, 419; 
adverbial use, id. c; replacing subord. 
clauses, 420; supplyiDg place of perf. 
act. part., 493. 2. Place, 422, 426. 3; w. 
vbs. and fretus, 431 and a. Abl. of 
time, 423 ; of time w. quam, 434. n. ; of 
place from which, 426. 1; names of 
towns, domus, rus, 427. 1 ; ex urbe Roma, 
428. b. Locative abl., 426. 3; way by 
which, 429. a ; w. transitive compounds, 
395. n. 1 ; time within which, 424. c; 
duration of time, id. b. Abl. w. preps., 
220. b, 221, 430, 435 ; w. ex for part, gen., 
346. c; w. pro (in defence of), 379. n. ; 
w. palam etc., 432. c; abl. of gerund, 
507; equiv. to pres. part., id. ftn. 

Ablaut, 17 ; in decl. II, 45. c. 

Abounding, words of, w. abl., 409. a; w. 
gen., 356. 

Absence, vbs. of, w. abl., 401. 

Absolute case, see Abl. Absolute. 

Absolute use of vb., 273. 2. n. 2 , 387. N. 

absque me etc., in PI. and Ter., 517./. 

Abstract nouns, gend., 32; in plur., 100. 
c ; endings, 238 ; w. neut. adj., 287. 4. a, 
289 ; abstract quality denoted by neut. 
adj., 289. a. 

absum, constr., 373. b. 

-abus, in dat. and abl. plur., decl. I, 43. e. 

ac, see atque. 

ac si, w. subjv., 524. 

Acatalectic verse, 612. a. 



445 



446 



INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS 



accedit ut, 569. 2. 

Accent, rules of, 12 ; effect in modifying 
vowels, p. 27. ftn. 1 ; in decl. II, 49. b ; 
in comps. of facio, 204. b ; musical, 611. 

acceptum, 496. n. 4 . 

accidit, synopsis, 207; constr., 569. 2* 

accingo, constr., 364. 

accommodatus, w. dat. of gerund etc., 
505. a. 

Accompaniment, abl. of, 413. 

Accomplishment, vbs. of, w. subjv., 568. 

Accusative, denned, 35. d; in -m and 
-s, 38. c; in -im, decl. Ill, 75. a, b ; in 
-is (plur.), 77; in -a, 81. 2; ace. of 
decl. IV, used as supine, 94. b ; neut. 
ace. used as adv., 214. d, cf . 215. 1 ; fern, 
used as adv., id. 2. 

Accusative, Syntax, 386-397 (see 338) ; 
w. vbs. of remembering, 350 and a, c, 
d ; and gen. w. vbs. of reminding, 351 ; 
w. impersonals, 354. b, 388. c, 455. 2 ; w. 
ad with interest and refert, 355. b ; w. 
dat., 362; w. compounds of ad, ante, 
ob, 370. 6; vbs. varying between ace. 
of end of motion and dat., 363; w. ad 
for dat., 385. a ; after propior etc., 432. a ; 
direct object, 274, 387; w. iuvo etc., 
367. a; ace. or dat. w. vbs., 367. b, c; 
ace. w. vbs. of feeling and taste, 388. a, 
390. a ; w. comps. of circum and trans, 
388. 6; cognate ace, 390; adverbial use 
of, 390. c, d and n. 2 , 397. a ; two accu- 
satives, 391; pred. ace, 392-3; second- 
ary object, 394-5 ; ace. w. pass, of vbs. 
of asking etc., 396. b. n. ; synecdochical 
ace. (of specification), 397. b; in excla- 
mations, id. d; duration and extent, 
423, 425 ; end of motion, 426. 2 ; names 
of towns, domus, rus, 427. 2; Romam 
ad urbem, 428. b ; ace. w. ante diem, 424. 
g ; w. preps. , 220. a, c; w. ad or in to 
denote penalty, 353. 2. jst.; w. pridie, 
propius, etc., 342. a; ace. of gerund, 
506; of anticipation, 576; subj. of inf., 
397. e, 452, 455. 2, 459 ; as pred . after inf. , 
455. a; subj. in ind. disc, 579, 581. 

Accusing and acquitting, vbs. of, constr., 
352. 

acer, decl., 115; compar., 125. 

-aceus, adj. ending, 247. 

acies, decl., 98. a. 

acquiesco, w. abl., 431. 

Actions, names of, 237 ; nouns of action 
w. gen., 348. 

Active voice, 154. a, 156 ; change to pass., 
275. 

Acts, nouns denoting, 239. 

-acus (-acus) , adj . ending, 249. 

acus, gend., 90. Exc. 

ad, use, 220. a, 221. 2 ; incomp., 16, 267. a ; 
w. ace. to denote penalty, 353. 2. n. ; 



in comps., w. dat., 370, 381; in comps., 
w. ace, 370. b ; w. ace. with adjs., 385. 
a; end of motion, 426. 2, cf. 363; w. 
names of towns, 428. a; w. names of 
countries, 428. c ; meaning near, 428. d ; 
in expressions of time, 424. e ; following 
its noun, 435; w. gerund, 506. 

additur, constr., 568. 

adeo (verb), constr., 370. b. 

adeo ut, 537. 2. n. 2 . 

-ades, patronymic ending, 244. 

adiuvo, w. ace, 367. a. 

Adjective pronouns, see Pronouns. 

Adjectives. Definition, 20. b ; formed 
like nouns, 109; a- and o-stems, 110- 
112. Declension, 110-122 ; decl. I and 

II, 110-113; decl. Ill, 114-121; decl. 

III, three terminations, 115 ; one termi- 
nation, 117, 118; variable, indeclinable, 
defective, 122. Comparison, 123-131; 
decl. of comparative, 120. Numeral 
adjs., 132-137; derivative adjs., 242-255. 

Adjectives, Syntax. Masc. adjs., 122. 
d; adjs. of com. gend., id.; as advs., 
214. d, e (cf. 218), 290; adj. as app., 
282. b ; as nouns, 288, 289 ; nouns used 
as adjs., 321. c; advs. used as adjs., 
321. d; participles used as adjs., 494. 
Agreement of adjs., 286, 287 ; attribute 
and predicate, 287; use of neut. adjs., 
289. Adjs. w. adverbial force, 290. Two 
comparatives w. quam, 292. Adj. pro- 
nouns, 296-298. Gen. of adjs. of decl. 
Ill instead of nom., 343. c. n. *. Adjs. 
w. part, gen., 346. 2; w. dat., 383; w. 
ace, 388. d. n. 2 ; w. inf., 461; w. supine 
in -u, 510. Position of adjs., 598. a, b. 
Adjective phrase, 277. 

admodum, use, 291. c. n. K 

admoneo, constr., 351. 

Admonishing, vbs. of, constr., 563. 

Adonic verse, 625. 3. 

adspergo, constr., 364. 

adulor, constr., 367. b. 

Adverbial ace, 390. b, c, d, and n. 2 , 397. a. 

Adverbial conjunctions, 20. g. n. 

Adverbial phrases, 216, 277. 

Adverbs, defined, 20. e; formed from 
adjs., 214 and c, d, e, 218 ; case-forms or 
phrases, 215 ; comparison of advs., 218 ; 
numeral advs., 138. Classification of 
advs., 217; correlative forms of advs. 
of place, 217. n. 

Adverbs, Syntax, 321. Advs. used as 
adjs., 321. d; adjs. w. adverbial force, 
290; adverbial abl. abs., 419. c. Special 
uses, 322, 326. Advs. w. nouns, 321. c. 
n. ; correlative advs. used as conjs., 323. 
/, g ; part. gen. w. advs., 346. a. 4 ; dat. 
w. advs., 384 ; compar. of adv. followed 
by quam, 406; adv. as protasis, 521. a. 



INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS 



447 



Adversative conjunctions, 223. a. 2, 224. 
I. b. 

adversus, 219; w. ace, 220. a; as adv., 
433. 2. 

ae, diphthong, 2; sound of, 6. n. 3 , 8. 

aedes, sing, and plur., 107, a, 

aeger, decl., 112. a. 

aemulor, constr., 367. b. 

Aeneades, decl., 44. 

Aeneas, decl., 44. 

aequalis, decl., 76. a. 2; constr. w. gen., 
385. c and 1. 

aeque ac, 384. n. 2 . 

aequ5 (abl.), w. compar., 406. a. 

aequor, decl., 64. 

aer, use of plur., 100. b. 

aes, use of plur., 100. b. 

aetas, decl., 72. 

aether, decl., 81. 

Affecting, ace. of, 386. 

affinis, decl., 76. b. 2 ; constr. w. gen., 385. 
c and 1. 

Affirmative, expressed by two negatives, 
326; nonne expecting affirm, answer, 
332. b ; ways of saying yes, 336 and a. 

Agency, nouns of, 236 ; rel. clause equiv- 
alent to, 308. c. 

Agent, dat. of, w. gerundives, 374; w. 
perf. parts., 375; abl. of, 405; agent 
regarded as means, id. b; animal as 
agent, id. n. 2 . 

ager, decl., 47. 

aggredior, constr., 370. b. 

Agnomen, 108. a. n. 

ago, forms of, omitted, 319. a. 

Agreeing, verbs of, w. gerundive, 500. 4. 

Agreement, 280; of nouns, 281; in app., 
282; in predicate, 283; of adjs., 286; 
of demonstrative pronouns, 296 ; of pos- 
sessive pronouns, 302; of relatives, 
305, 306 ; of verbs, 316, 317. 

-ai for -ae, decl. I, 43. a; 603. a. 2. n. 

-aia, nouns in, decl., 43. e. n. 2 . 

aid, pronounced ai-io, 6. c. 

-aius, names in, decl., 49./; -aius in Pros- 
ody, 603./. n.2. 

-al, ending, 254. 7; nouns in, 68. ftn. 1. 

-al and -ar, neuters in (decl. Ill), 65. 6, 
76. «. 3. 

alacer, decl., 115. a; compar., 131. b. 

albus, not compared, 131. d. 

Alcaic verse, 625. 9, 10. 

Alcmanian strophe, 617. a. 

-ale, noun ending, 254. 7; list of nouns 
in, 68. ftn. 2. 

alienus, for possessive gen. of alius, 113. d, 
343. a. 

aliquis (-qui), decl., 151. e; meaning, 310, 
311. 

aliquot, indeclinable, 122. b. 

-alis, -aris, adj, endings, 248. 



alius, decl., 113; gen., id. c, cf. 343; com- 
pounds, 113* e; alius w. abl., ac, nisi, 
quam, 407. d. 

alius . . . alius, 315. a. 

Alphabet, 1 ; vowels and diphthongs, 1, 2 ; 
consonants, 3, 4 ; early forms of letters, 
1. a and n., 6. a, b. 

alter, decl., 113. b; gen. and comps., id, 
c, e ; use, 315 ; reciprocal use, 145. c 
315. a. 

alter . . . alter, 315. a. 

altera est res ut, 568. ftn. 2. 

alteruter, decl., 113. e; use, 315. 

Although, how expressed, 527, 535. e. 

alvos (alvus), gend., 48. Exc. 

am-, see amb-. 

-am, adv. ending, 215. 2. 

amb- (am-, an-), inseparable prefix, 267. b. 

ambages, decl., 78. 1. 

ambo, decl., p. 59. ftn. ; 5 in, p. 427. ftn. 1. 

amens, decl., 121. a. 3. 

amplius, without quam, 407. c. 

amussim, ace, 75. a. 3, 103. b. 4. 

an-, see amb-. 

an, anne, annon, in double questions, 335. 

Anacrusis, 608. g. 

Anapaest, 609. b. 2; anapaestic verse, 613, 
628. a. 

Anaphora, 598./. 

anceps, decl., 121. a. 3. 

Anchlses, decl., 44. 

Andromache, decl., 44. 

-aneus, adj. ending, 247. 

animal, decl., 69. 

Animals, gend. of names of, 32, 34 and 
n. : regarded as means or agent, 405. 6. 

N.2. 

animi (loc), w. adjs., 358; w. vbs., id. 

annalis, decl., 76. a. 2. 

Annalistic present, 469. a. 

Answers, forms of, 336, 337. 

ant-, ent-, stem-endings, 83. e. 

ante, 220. a ; uses, 221. 3 ; compounded w. 
vbs., 267. a; in compounds, w. dat., 
370, w. ace, id. 6; adverbial use of, 
433. 1 ; followed by quam, 434. 

ante diem, 424. g. 

Antecedent, its use w. relative, 305-307 ; 
undefined, constr., 535. See Indefinite 
antecedent. 

antecedo, constr., 370. b. 

anteed, constr., 370 6. 

antegredior, constr., 370. b. 

Antepenult, defined, 12. ftn. 

antequam, 550, 551 ; in ind. disc, 585. 6. N. 

Antibacchius, 609. d. n. 

Anticipation, ace of, 576 ; becomes nom n 
id. n. 

Antithesis, 598./. 

anus, gend., 90. Exc. 

-anus, adjs. in, 249. 



448 



INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS 



Aorist ( = hist. perf.), 161. 2, 473. 

apage, 206. g. 

apertus, compar. of, 124. a. 

Apex, 10. n. 

apis, decl., 78. 2. 

Apodosis, defined, 512; introduced by 
correl., id. b; may be subord., id. c; 
forms of, 514, 515 if. ; potential subjv., 
447.3.N. ; subjv. of modesty, 447.1; vbs. 
of necessity etc., 522. a ; complex apod., 
523; apod, omitted, 524; apod, in ind. 
disc, 589. 2. See Conditional Sen- 
tences. 

Appointing, vbs. of, constr., 393. 

Apposition, see Appositive. 

Appositive, defined, 282; agreement of, 
281, 282. c; w. loc, id. d; gen. as app. 
to possessive, 302. e ; gen. used for app., 
343. d ; so dat., 373. a ; rel. clause equiv- 
alent to app., 308. c; ace. as app. to a 
clause, 397. /; app. instead of voc, 
340. a; app. in connection with inf., 
452 and n. 2 . 

aptus ad, 385. a ; aptus w. dat. of gerund 
etc., 505. a. ftn. 2; aptus qui, 535./. 

apud, 220. a; use, 221. 4; in quoting, 428. 

d. N.2. 

aqualis, decl., 76. a. 2. 

-ar, nom. ending, decl. Ill, 68. a, 65. 6, 

76. a. 2; 68. ftn. 1 ; gend., 87. 
arbor (-os), decl., 62. n. 2 . 
arceo, constr., 364. N. 2 . 
Archilochian verse, 622. 
arctus, gend., 48. Exc. 
ardeo, w. abl., 404. a. 
-aria, suffix, 254. 2. 
-aris, adj. ending, 248. 
Aristophanic verse, 625. 2. 
-arium, noun ending, 254. 3. 
-arius, adj. ending, 250. a; noun ending, 

254.1. 
Arrangement of words, 595-601. 
Arsis and thesis, 611 and ftn. 
Arts, names of, decl. I, 44. 
artus, decl., 92. c. 
as, value of, 632 ; gen. of, 417. a. 
-as, in ace. plur. of Greek nouns, 81. 5. 
-as, old gen. ending, 43. b ; Greek nom. 

ending, 83. e; patronymic, 244; gend. 

of nouns in, 86. b ; -as, -atis, see at- ; 

adjs. in -as, 249. 
Asclepiadic verse, 625. 5, 6. 
Asking, vbs. of, w. two ace, 396 ; w. abl., 

396. a ; w. subjunctive clause, 563. 
Aspirates, 4 and ftn. 2. 
Assertions, direct, in indie, 157. a. 
Assimilation of consonants, 15. 6, 10; in 

prefixes, 16. 
-asso, -assere, in fut. perf., 183. 5. 
ast, 324. d. 
-aster, as noun ending, 254. 11. 



Asyndeton, 323. 6, 601. c. 

At, meaning near, 428. d. 

at, use, 324. d ; at enim, id. ; at vero, 324. h 

at-, patrial stem-ending, 71. 5; decl., 78. 
3, 121. a. 4. 

ater, decl., 112. a; not compared, 131. d 
and n. 

Athematic verbs, 174. 2. 

Athos, decl., 52. 

Atlas, decl., 82, 83. e. 

atque (ac) , use, 324. 6, c ; after adjs. of like- 
ness, 384. n. 2 ; after alius, 407. d. 

atqui, use, 324. d. 

atrox, decl., 117. a. 

Attraction of case of relative, 306. a; of 
case of antecedent, id. n. ; of subject in 
ind. disc, 581. n. 2 . 

Attraction, subjunctive of, 591. 2, 593. 

Attributive adjective defined, 285. 1; 
number, 286. a; takes gend. of near- 
est noun, 287. 1. 

-atus, adj. ending, 246. 

audacter, compar., 218. 

aula, decl., 44. 

aureus, not compared, 131. d, 

ausus as pres. part., 491. 

aut, use, 324. e, 335. d. n. 

autem, use, 324. d,j, 599. 6. 

Author w. apud, 428. d. n. 2 . 

Authority in Prosody, 602. 

avis, decl., 76. 6. 1. 

-ax, verbal adj. ending, 251; adjs. in, 
w. gen., 349. c. 

baccar, decl., 76. a. 3. 

Bacchiac verse, 628. b. 

JBacchlus, 609. d. 

Baiae, decl., 43. e. n. 2 . 

->am, tense-ending, 168. 6. 

Bargaining, vbs. of, constr. , 563 ; gerun- 
dive, 500. 4 ; clause, 563. d. 

Base, 27. 

basis, decl., 82. 

Beginning, vbs. of, constr., 456. 

BelieviDg, vbs. of, w. dat., 367. 

belli, loc. use of, 427. a. 

bellum, decl., 46. 

bellus, compar., 131. a. 

Belonging, adjs. of, w. gen., 385. c. 

bene, comparison, 218; in phrase com- 
pounds, 12. a. Exc. 1, 266. b; com- 
pounds of, constr., 368. 2. 

Benefiting, vbs. of, constr., 367. 

-ber, names of months in, decl., 115. a. 

bicolor, decl., 122. a. 

bicorpor, 119. N. 

-bilis, verbal adj. ending, 252. 

Birds, gend. of names of, 32. 

Birth or origin, nouns of, derivation, 244? 
participles of, w. abl., 403. a. 

-bo, tense-ending, 168. c. 



INDEX OE WORDS AND SUBJECTS 



449 



B5I, decl., 49./. 

bonus, decl., 110 ; compar., 129 ; w. dat. of 

gerund etc., 505. a. ftn. 
bds, decl., 79 and b. 

bri-, stems ending in, 66 ; adjs. in, 115. a. 
-brum, suffix, 240. 
-bulum, suffix, 240. 
-bundus, verbals in, 253. b ; w. ace, 388. d. 

N. 2 . 

buris, decl., 75. a. 1. 

Buying, vbs. of, constr. with, 417. c. 

C for g, in early use and as abbreviation, 
1. a andN. ; for qu, 6. a, b; quantity of 
final syllables ending in, 604.,;. 

caedes, decl., 78. 2. 

caeles, decl., 121. a. 4. 

caelum, w. masc. plur., 106. b. 

Caere, decl., 76. 6. n. 2 . 

caesius, compar., 131. a. 

Caesura, 611. b ; masc. and fern., 615. c. n. ; 
bucolic caesura, id. 

Calendar, Roman, 631. 

Calends, 631. a. 

calx, decl., 103. g. 2. 

campester, decl., 115. a. 

Can, how expressed in Lat., 157. 6. 

canalis, decl., 76. 6. 2. 

canis, decl. and stem, 62. n. 3 , 76. 6. n. 3 , 
78.1. 

cap, root, 56. a. 

Capacity, measures of, 638. 

capitis, genitive, w. verbs of accusing, 
352, a. 

caput, decl., 59. 

Capys, decl., 82. 

carbasus, gend., 48. Exc. ; plur., 106. b. 

Cardinal numbers, 132 ; inflection of, 134. 
a-c; use of et with, 135. a, b ; replaced 
by distributives, 137. 6, d ; w. ex or par- 
titive genitive, 346. c. 

care, compar., 218. 

card, decl., 79. 

cams, compar., 124. 

Case-constructions, 338. 

Case-endings, 27. a ; final vowels in, 38. g ; 
table, 39. 

Case-forms, words defective in, 103. 

Cases, defined, 35 ; position of modifying 
case, 598. 2 ; agreement in, 281 ; origin 
and meaning of, 338 ; case of rel. pron., 
305, 306. a ; same case after as before 
certain conjs., 323. a. Construction of 
Cases, 338-435; Genitive, 342-359; 
Dative, 360-380; Accusative, 386-397; 
Vocative, 340; Ablative, 398-420 ; time 
and place, 423-431; cases w. preps., 
220, 426. ftn. 

cassem, decl., 103./. 3. 

castrum, castra, 107. 

Catalectic verse, 612. a. 



causa, w. gen., 359. 6, 404. c; w. gen. of 
gerund, 504. b. 

Causal clauses, 539, 540; w. indie, or 
subj v., quod, quia, 540 ; w. indie, quoni- 
am, quando, 540. a; w. qui, 535. e; w. cum, 
540. d\ non quia, non quod, etc., in the 
denial of a reason, 540. n. 8 ; causal 
clause replaced by part., 496; by abl. 
abs., 420. 2. 

Causal conjunctions, 223. a. 3, b. 7, 224. II. 
/; particles, 539, 540. 

Cause, abl. of, 404. 

Cause, advs. of, 217. c. 

Caution and effort, verbs of, constr., 
563. e. 

cave, in prohibitions, 450 (2) and n. 2 ; 
ne omitted after, 565. n. *. 

caveo, constr., 563. 

-ce, enclitic, 146. n. 1 and a. n. *. 

Ceasing, verbs of, w. complem. inf., 456. 

cedo, constr., 366. n. 2 . 

celeber, decl., 115. a. 

celer, forms, 115. a. n. 2 . 

celo, w. ace, 396. c. 

Celtiber, decl., 50. c. 

censeo, constr., 563 and d. 

certe, certo, use, 322. c; in answers, 336. a. 

cete, Greek plur., 48. a. n. 

cetera, 111. 6; adverbial use, 390. d. n. 2 ; 
-us, use, 293; -i, use, 315. 

ceu, use, 524. 

-ceus, adj. ending, 247. 

Characteristic, clauses of, 534, 535 ; pro- 
viso, 535. d; cause or concession, id. e ; 
of result or characteristic, 559. 

Characteristic, expr. by participle, 496. 

Characteristic vowel, 37. 

Charge and penalty, gen. of, 352. 

Chiasmus, 598. /and n. 

Choliambic trimeter, 618. c. 

Choosing, vbs. of, w. two aces., 393. 

Choriambic verse, 624. n. 

Choriambus, 609. c. 

ci and ti, interchange of, 6. n. *. 

-cinium, noun ending, 241. c. 

-ci5, diminutive ending, 243. a. 

cip-, stems in, decl. Ill, 56. a. 

circa, circum, circiter, use, 220. a, 221. 5-7; 
as advs., 433. 2. 

circa, w. gerund, 506. n. 1 . 

circum, compounds w. vbs., 267. a; dat. 
w. such comps., 370; ace, 388. b, 

circumdo, constr., 364. 

Circumstances of action, 419, 420. 5; 
participle implying, 496. 

cis, citerior, 130. a. 

Cities, gend. of names of, 32 and a. See 
Locative. 

citra, after its noun, 435. 

clades, decl., 78. 2. 

clam, constr., 432. d. 



450 



INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS 



Classes, names of, gend. of, 30. a. n. 3 ; 
used in plur., 101. 3. 

Clauses, denned, kinds of, 278, 279 ; re- 
placed by abl. abs., 420; used as 
nouns, 343. c; dependent, syntax of, 
519-593; conditional rel., 279. c, 519; 
final, 279. d, 529-533; consecutive, 
536, 537; causal, 539, 540; temporal, 
543-556; substantive, 562-588; infini- 
tive clauses, 452, 562. n. ; substantive 
clauses of purpose, 563 ; of result, 567, 
568 ; indie, w. quod, 572 ; indirect ques- 
tions, 573-575; ind. disc, 578-593. 

clavis, decl., 76. b. 1. 

Close syllables, 7. n. 2 . 

coepi, 205. 

Cognate ace, 214. d. n., 390. 

Cognomen, 108. 

Collective noun with sing, or plur. vb., 
317. d. 

colus, gend., 90; decl., 105. a. 

com- (con-), compounded w. vbs., 16, 267. 
a ; such may take dat., 370. 

Combinations of words, 13. 

cometes, decl., 44. 

comitium, comitia, 107. 

Command, see Imperative ; in hortatory 
subjv., 439. 

Commanding, vbs. of, w. dat., 367; w. 
inf., 563. a; w. subjv., 563 (cf. 580. a). 

Commands, expressed by imv., 448; for 
condition, 521. b; in ind. disc, 588; in 
informal ind. disc, 592. 1. 

commiseror, w. ace, 354. a. n. 

committo ut, 568 and n. 1 . 

Common gender, 34; adjs. of, 122. d. 

Common syllables, 11. c, 603./. 

commonefacio, -fio, constr., 351. 

commoneo, constr., 351. 

communis, w. gen., 385. c. 

commuto, constr., 417. b. 

Comparative conjunctions, 223. b. 2, 224. 
II. b; in conditions, 524. 

Comparative suffix, 124. ftn. ; of advs., 
214. b. N. 

Comparatives, decl., 120; stem, id. b; 
neut. sing, of compar. adj. used as adv., 
218 ; meaning of, 291 ; two compara- 
tives, 292; compar. and positive w. 
quam, id. a. N. ; abl. w. compar., 406; 
quam w. compar., 407. a; compar. w. 
quam (ut), quam qui, 535. c, 571. a. 

Comparison, conjunctions of, 323. a. 

Comparison, particles of, tamquam, quasi, 
etc, constr., 524. 

Comparison of adjs., 123 ff. ; irregular, 
129 ; defective, 130, 131 ; w. niagis and 
maxime, 128; of advs., 218; preposi- 
tions implying, w. quam, 407. e. N., 434. 

Complementary infinitive, 456; has no 
subject, id. n. ; pred. noun or adj. after, 



458 ; inf. partly subject, partly comple- 
mentary, 454 ; by analogy, 457. a. 

compleS, constr., 356, 409. n. 

Completed action, tenses of, 160. b ; how 
formed, 179./, g; use of, 473 ff. 

Complex conditional sentences, 523. 

Complex sentence, 278. b. 

comphlres, compluria, 120. c. 

compos, decl., 121. a. 4, b. 1. 

Composition, all word-formation a pro- 
cess of, 227 ; comp. to express relations 
of words, 338, 386. See Comp. words. 

Compound sentence, defined, 278. 2. 

Compound stems, imaginary, 255. a. 

Compound suffixes, 233. 2, 235. 

Compound verbs, 267; comps. of facio, 
204. a, b. 

Compound words, assimilation in, 15. 6, 
16; defined, 264; how formed, 265-267. 

Compounds of preps., w. dat., 370 ; of ab, 
de, ex, 381; w. ace, 388. b, 395; quan- 
tity of, 606. c. 

con-, see com-. 

Conative present, 467; imperfect, 471. c. 

concedo, constr., 563 and c. 

Concession, hortatory subjv. of, 440 (cf. 
526) ; particles of, 527 ; quamvis, ut, 527. 
a ; licet, id. b ; etsi etc, id. c ; cum, 549 ; 
quamquam, 527. d, e ; quamvis, w. indic- 
ative, 527. e; vbs. of, w. ut, 527. /; 
abl. abs. for concessive clause, 420. 3 ; 
concession implied in part., 496; qui 
concessive, 535. e. 

Concessive clauses, see Concession. 

Concessive conjunctions, 223. b. 3, 224, 
II. c; particles, use of, 527. 

Conclusion, see Apodosis. 

Concords, the four, 280. 

concors, decl., 119, 121. a. 3. 

Condemning, vbs. of, constr., 352. 

Conditional clauses, defined, 279. c. 

Conditional conjunctions, 223. b. 1, 224. 
II. a, 525. 

Conditional Particles, 524, 525. 

Conditional sentences, defined, 279. c; 
development, 511 ; protasis and apodo- 
sis, 512; classification, 514 ; Presentand 
Past, nothing implied, 515 ; Future con- 
ditions, 516; fut. more vivid, id. 2. a; 
fut. less vivid, id. 2. b ; perf . indie in 
fut. cond., id. e ; Contrary to fact, 517 ; 
indie in contrary to fact condition, id. 
6, cf. c and notes; in old Latin, id. 
e. N. 2 ; General condition, 518; condi- 
tion disguised, 521; as part, etc., id. 
a ; as exhortation or command, id. b. ; 
protasis omitted, 522 ; Potential Subjv., 
446; Subjv. of Modesty, 447. 1; vbs. 
of necessity etc., 522. a; complex 
conditions, 523 ; clauses of Comparison 
(conclusion omitted), 524; Concessive 



INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS 



451 



clauses, 527; Proviso, 528; use of si 
and its comps., 525 ; conditional relative 
clauses, 519 ; temporal, 542, 551. c. n. 2 ; 
conditional sentences in ind. disc, 589. 

confido, constr., 431 and n. 1 . 

Conjugation, defined, 22. Conjugation 
of verbs, 171-193; how distinguished, 
171; regular forms of, 173; mixed 
forms, id. ; parallel forms, 189 ; stem- 
vowels of conjugations, 171-178; stems 
of the four conjugations, how modified, 
179 ; paradigms of the four regular con- 
jugations, 184-212. 

Conjunctions, defined, 20. g\ classes of, 
223; list of, 224. Syntax, 323. a, 324. 
a-Jc, 539, 540. notes; correlative use, 
323. g; conjs. repeated, id. e; omitted, 
id. b ; used together, 324. k. 

Conjunctive adverbs, 20. g. n. 

Conjunctive phrases, 224. 

Connectives, relatives used as, 308./. 

conor, w. inf., 563. e. ; c5nor si, id. n. *. 

Consecutive clauses, defined, 279. e ; uses, 
536-538; clauses of result or charac- 
teristic, 559. 

Consecutive conjunctions, 223. b. 5, 224. 
II. e. 

consequor ut, 568. 

consistere, w. abl., 403. b. ftn. 2, 431. 

Consonant stems of nouns, decl. Ill, 56- 
64; cons, stems of adjs., 117; case- 
forms, 121 ; of verbs, 259. a. 3. 

Consonant suffixes (primary), 234. II. 

Consonants, classification, 3; changes, 
14-19 ; insertion, 15. 11 ; transposition, 
177. a. n. ; dissimilation, 15. 6 ; assimila- 
tion, id. 16; pronunciation, 8 and n., 
11. b. n. 

consors, decl., 121. a. 3. 

cdnstare, w. abl., 403. b. 

constituo, constr ._, 563. d. 

Constructio ad sensum, see Synesis. 

Constructions of cases, 338-435 (see under 
Abl. etc.). 

consuevi, use, 476. 

consul, decl., 62. 

cSnsularis, decl., 76. a. 2. 

c5nsulo, w. dat. or ace, 367. c. 

Contention, words of, constr., 368. a, 
413. b. 

contentus, w. abl., 431. a; w. perf. inf., 
486./. 

contineri, w. abl., 403. b. ftn. 

contingit ut, 568. 

Continued action, tenses of, 160, 161. 

Continuing, vbs. of, w. complementary 
inf., 456. 

contra, use, 220. a, 221. 8, 321. d\ as adv., 
433.4; position, 435. 

Contracted forms, vin', scin', 13. n. ; gen. 
in -l, dat. and abl. in -Is, 49. a, b. 



Contracting, vbs. of, w. gerundive, 500. 4. 

Contraction of vowels, 15. 3; quantity, 
10. c ; in prosody, 603. c ; of syllables, 
608. d. 

Contrary to fact conditions, 517 ; in ind. 
disc, 589. b. 

convenio, w. ace, 370. b. 

Coordinate conjunctions, 223. a, 224. 
a-d; coord, clauses, 278. a; coord, 
words without conj., 323. 6; w. conj., 
id. c. 

Copula, 272, 283; position of, 598. j. 

Copulative conjunctions, 223. a. 1, 224. I. 
a ; constr. after, 323 ; omission of, 323. b. 

Copulative verbs, 272, 283. 

cor, decl., 59, 60. b, 103. g. 2. 

corpus, decl., 64. 

Correlatives, 152, 323. g; rendered by 
the . . . the, 414. a ; advs. of place, 217. 
a; conjs., 323./, g. 

cos, decl., 103. g. 2. 

Countries, names of, gend., 32; as end of 
motion, and place from which, 428. c. 

Crdsis, 603. c. 

creber, decl., 112. a. 

credibill, w. comparative, 406. a. 

credo, position of, 599. c. 

Cretic foot, 609. d; verse, 628. c. 

Crime or charge, gen. of, 352. 

-crum, noun ending, 240. 

crux, decl., 103. g. 2. 

cucumis, decl., 75. a. 

cuias, cuius, 145. b, 151. h. 

cuicui modi, 151. 6. n. 

cuius modi, 345. a. 

-culum, noun suffix, 240. 

-cuius, dim. ending, 243. 

cum, quom (conj.), form, 544; meaning, 
544 ff. ; cum . . . turn, 323. g, 549. b ; se- 
quence, 485. e. n. ; w. clause for part., 
492, 493.2; temporal, 545-548; causal 
or concess., 549 ; in ind. disc, 585. b. N. ; 
cum (whenever), 545. n. 2 , 548. 

cum (prep.), 220. b; in comp., see com-; 
joined as enclitic with pronouns, 143. /, 
150. d ; use of, 221. 9 ; w. plur. adj ., 286. 
a. n.; w. plur. verb, 317. n. ; w. abl. 
of manner, 412; w. abl. of accom- 
paniment, 413; w. words of conten- 
tion, 413. b; w. words of exchange, 
417. b. N. 

-cumque, added to relatives, 151. a and 
n. ; temporal particles w., 542. 

-cundus, verbal adj. ending, 253 and b. 

cupio, constr., 563. b. 

curd, constr., 563 ; cura (imv.), use, 449. c. 

-cus, suffix, 232. n., 249. 

Customary action, 470, 518. c. 

D changed to s, 15. 5 ; -d, old abl. ending, 
decl.I,43.N.i; decl. II, 49. e ; decl. Ill, 



452 



INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS 



p. 34. ftn. ; decl. IV, 92./; med, ted, 143. 
a. n. ; sed, 144. b. n. 2 ; -e in advs. origi- 
nally -ed, 214. a. n.; -d as neut. pron. 
ending, 113. 6; loss of -d, 398. 

Dactyl, 609. b ; cyclic, id. e. 

Dactylic verse, 613 ; hexameter, 615 ; ele- 
giac stanza, 616 ; other forms, 617. 

-dam, adverbial ending, 215. 6. 

damnas, indecl. adj., 122. b. 

daps, defect., 103. h. 2. 

Daring, vbs. of, w. compl. inf., 456. 

Dates, how expressed, 424./, 631. 

Dative denned, 35. c; in -ai, decl. I, 43. 
a; in -abus, decl. I, id. e ; in -is for -iis, 
decl. II, 49./; in-ubus, decl. IV, 92. c; 
in -I (of unus etc.), 113. 

Dative, Syntax, 360-385. Indirect ob- 
ject, 361; w. transitives, 362; w. vbs. 
implying motion, 363; use of dono etc., 
364 ; in pass., 365 ; w. intransitives, 366 ; 
w. phrases, id. a; like gen., id. b; w. 
intransitives, verbs meaning favor etc., 
367; similar vbs. w. ace. id. a; vbs. 
having dat. or ace, id. &, c; w. verbal 
nouns, id. d ; w. libet and licet, 368. 1 ; 
w. comps. of satis, bene, male, id. 2; 
poetic use, id. a ; intrans. vbs. w. ace. 
and dat., 369; w. comps. of preps, ad, 
ante, etc., 370; w. passive used imper- 
sonally, 372. Of Possession, 373; w. 
nomen est, id. a ; w. desum and absum, 
id. b. Of the Agent, 374, 375. Of Ref- 
erence, 376, 377 ; of the person judging, 
378; used idiomatically, 379; ethical 
dat., 380. Of Separation, 381. Of Pur- 
pose, 382; w. adjs. and advs., 383; w. 
adjs. of fitness etc., 384, 385; gen. or 
dat. w. similis, 385. c. 2. With words 
of contention (poetic) , 413. b.nf. Of End 
of Motion, 428. h ; w. infin., 455. 1 ; dat. 
of gerund, 505. a. 

Dativus commodi aut incommodi, 376. 

de, use, 220. 6, 221. 10; in comp. w. vbs., 
267. a; in comp. w. vbs., w. dat., 381; 
in comp. w. vbs., w. abl., 402; w. abl. 
instead of part, gen., 346. c; w. vbs. of 
reminding, 351. N. ; w. abl. to denote 
the crime, 353. 2 ; w. place from which, 
426. 1 ; position of de, 435 ; de w. abl. 
of gerund, 507. 

dea, decl., 43. e. 

debeo, in apod., 517. c. 

debui,w. pres. inf., 486. a ; w. perf . inf., id. b. 

decerno, constr., 563. d and n. 2 . 

decet, w. ace, 388. c; w. dat., id. n. 3 ; 
in apod., 517. c. 

Declarative sentence, 269. a; how ex- 
pressed in ind. disc, 580. 

Declension defined, 22; characteristics 
of, 37; general rules for, 38; termi- 
nations, 39. Of Nouns, I, 40-44; II, 



45-52; III, 53-87; IV, 88-94; V, 95-98; 
decl. V compared with I, 98. c. Of 
Adjs., decl. I-II, 109-113; decl. Ill, 
114-122 ; of comparatives, 120 ; of par- 
ticiples, 109, 117. b. 

Decreeing, vbs. of, 563. d. 

dSdl, quantity of penult, 605. Exc. 

Defective adjectives, 111. 6, 122. c. 

Defective comparison, 130. 

Defective nouns, 99-103; of decl. IV, 94. 
c; of decl. V, 98. a. 

Defective verbs, 205-206. 

deficio, constr., 367. a. 

Definite perfect, 161. 1, 473 ; sequence of, 
485. a. 

defit, 204. c. 

degener, 119. n., 121. a. 3. 

Degree, adverbs of, 217. c. 

Degree of difference, abl. of, 414; dis- 
tance expressed by, 425. 6. 

Degrees of Comparison, 123. 

deinde, denique, in enumerations, 322. d. N. 

delectat, constr., 388. c. 

delecto, w. ace, 367. a. 

delector, w. abl., 431. 

Deliberative subjunctive, 443, 444; in 
indir. questions, 575. b ; in ind. disc, 587. 

delirium, -ia, -iae, 106. b. 

Delivering, vbs. of, w. gerundive, 500. 4. 

Delos, decl., 52. 

delphin, decl., 83. a. 

-dem, adverbial ending, 215. 6. 

Demanding, vbs. of, w. gerundive, 500. 4. 

Demonstrative adverbs, as correlatives, 
323. g; equivalent to demonstr. pron. 
w. prep., 321. a. Position, 598. b. 

Demonstrative pronouns, 146; decl., id.; 
formation, id. n. 1 . Syntax, 296-298; 
of 1st person, 297. a ; of 2d pers., id. c ; 
of 3d pers., id. b ; supply place of pers. 
prons. of 3d pers., 295. c; in relative 
clause, 308. d. n. Position, 598. b. 

denarius, value of, 632. 

Denominative verbs, 258-262. 

Dependent clauses, subjv. used in, 438. b. 

Deponent verbs defined, 156. b; how 
conjugated, 190; paradigms, id. ; parti- 
ciples, id. a; fut. inf., id. c; used re- 
flexively, id. e; in passive sense, id./; 
list of irregular deponent verbs, 191; 
defective deponents, id. a; semi-depo- 
nents, 192. 

Depriving, constr. w. vbs. of, 401. 

Derivation of words, 227-267. 

Derivative forms of nouns, 236-241; of 
adjs., 242-255; of vbs., 258-263. 

Derivative verbs, defined, 257. 

Derivatives, quantity of, 606. 

-des, nouns in, 244. 

Description, imperf . used in, 471. a. 

Description implied in part., 496. 



INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS 



453 



Descriptive abl., see Abl. of quality. 

f deses, decl., 121. a. 4. 

Desiderative verbs (in -urio) , 263. 4. 

Desire, adjs. of, w. gen., 349. a. 

despero, constr., 367. b. 

deterior, compar. of, 130. a. 

Determinative compounds, 265. 2. 

Determining, vbs. of, constr., 563. d. 

deus, decl., 49. g. 

dexter, decl., 111. a; compar., 129. 

di-, see dis-. 

Diaeresis, 611. c. 

Diastole, 612. b. 

die, imperative, 182. 

dicionis, defect., 103. e. 

died, forms of, omitted, 319. a. 

dict5, w. comp., 406. a. 

-dicus, adjs. in, comparison of, 127. 

Dido, decl., 82. 

diem dicere, w. dat. of gerund etc., 505. 

dies, decl., 96; gender, 97. a; gen. form 

dii, 98. N. 
Difference, abl. of degree of, 414. 
difficilis, comparison, 126; constr., 510. 

N.2. 

dlgnor, w. abl., 418. b. it. 1 . 

dignus, w. abl., 418. b ; w. relative clause, 

535./. 
Dimeter, iambic verse, 619. c. 
Diminutive endings, w. nouns and adjec- 
tives, 243 ; verbs, 263. 3. 
din-, stem-ending, 61. 2. 
Diphthongs, 2; sound of, 8; quantity, 

10. b, 603. b. 
Diptotes, 103. c. 
Direct object, 274, 387. 
Direct question, defined, 330. 1. 
Direct quotation, 578. N. 
Direct reflexive, 300. b. 
dis- (di-), inseparable prefix, 267. b. 
Disjunctive conjunctions, 224. I. a ; case 

of noun after, 323. 
Dissimilation, 15. 6. 
dissimilis, comp., 126. 
Distance, ace. or abl., 425. b; of time, 

424./. 
Distributive numerals, 136 ; use, 137. 
Distributive pronouns, 313 
diu, compar., 218. a. 
dives, decl., 119, 121. b. 
divum (divom) , for deorum, 49. g. N. 
-d5, adverbial ending, 215. 6. 
-do, nouns in, from st. din-, 61. 2 ; gend., 86. 
do, conj., 202; w. inf., 460. a. 
doce5, constr., 396 and c. n. 2 . 
domi, locative, 427. 3. 
domum, 427. 2; domo, id. 1. 
domus, gend., 90. Exc. ; decl., 93; double 

stem of, id. ; locative form, 93. N. 1 . 
donee, w. ind. or subjv., 553 n. K 2 , 554, 

555. 



dono, double constr. of, 364. 

dos, decl., 71. 6. 

Double consonants, 4, 11. b. 

Double questions, 334 ; answers to, 337. 

Doubting, vbs. of, constr., 558. 

Dual forms, p. 59. ftn. 

Dubitative subjv., see Deliberative. 

dubito an, 331. N. ; non dubito quin, 558. a ; 
non dubito, w. inf., id. n. 2 ; without 
neg., id. n. 1 . 

due, imperative, 182. 

dum, derivation, 215. 6; w. past, id. a; 
w. clause for pres. and perf . part., 492, 
493. 2; introducing a proviso, 528; as 
adv., 552 ; until, w. pres. or impf . subjv. 
denoting intention or expectancy, 553 ; 
w. pres. or fut. perf. indie, to state 
future fact, id. n. 2 ; w. perf. indie, 
554. n. ; as long as, w. indie, 555 (cf. 
556. a) ; while, w. pres. indie, 556; w. 
past indie , id. a. 

dummodo, 528. 

duo, decl., 134. b. 

dupli, w. vbs. of condemning, 352. a. 

Duration, ace of, 423 j abl. of, 424. 6. 

-dus, participle in, see Gerundive. 

Duty, vbs. of, in apod., 517. c. 

dux, decl., 57. 

E, variant of o as stem-vowel of decl. II, 
45. c and n. ; in voe, id. ; abl. of neuters 
in, decl. Ill, 76. a. 3; gend. of neuters 
in, decl. Ill, 87 ; abl. in, of adjs. of two 
and three terminations, 116. N., 117, 121. 
a ; stem-vowel, conj. Ill, 171, 174. 1, 179. 
c ; final, quantity of, 604. e. 

e, for ae (oe) , 6. n. 3 ; in Greek voe, 81. 3 ; 
in stem of decl. V, 98 ; in gen. of decl. V, 
98. d. n. ; in dat., id. ; in stem of conj. 
II, 171, 179. b ; -e as adv. ending, 214. a, c. 

e (preposition), see ex. 

eae, old dat. fern, of is, 146. n. 3 . 

Early forms of alphabet, 1. a and N., 6. 
a, b ; of prosody, 629. 

ecce (eccum etc.), 146. a. n. 2 . 

ecquis, decl., 151./; use, 310. a. 

Ecthlipsis, 612./. 

edicd, constr., 563. d. 

edo (eat), conj., 201. 

Effecting, vbs. of, w. perf. part., 497. c ; w. 
ut-clause, 580. d. 

efficio ut, 568. 

effieri, 204. c. 

effigies, decl., 98. a. 

Effort, vbs. of, w. ut-clause, 563. e. 

egens, decl., 118. 

egeo, constr., 356 and n. 

ego, decl., 143. 

ei, diphthong, 2 ; sound of, 8. 

-eis for -is in plur. of decl. I, 43. e. N. 2 . 

-eis, patronymic, 244. 



454 



INDEX OF WOKDS AND SUBJECTS 



-§ius, adj. ending, 249; in prosody, 11. d, 
603./. n. 2. 

-Gius, names in, decl., 49. /. 

eiusmodl, 146. 6, 345. a. 

Electra, decl., 44. 

Elegiac stanza, 616. 

-elis, adj. ending, 248. 

Elision, 612. e. 

Ellipsis, 640. 

ellum etc., 146. a. N. 2 . 

-ellus, diminutive ending, 243. 

eluvies, decl., 98, a. 

em, combined w= prons, (ellum etc.). 146 
a. n. 2 . 

Emphasis, 597. 

en- (on-, en-, on-) , primary suffix, 234. II. 13, 

Enclitics, accent, 12. a ; quantity, 604. a. 
1; cum, 143./, 150. b, d\ -met, -te, -pte, 
143. d and n. ; -pse, 146. n. ?, 8 ; -ce, id. 
.a. n. 1 ; -que, see under that word. 

End of motion, ace. of, 426. 2; w. vbs. 
that also take dat., 363 ; dat. of, 428. h ; 
two or more places as end of motion, 
428. j. 

Endings, signification of, 235-263; end- 
ings of verb, 165. 2, 166. See Personal 
endings, and Terminations. 

English method of pronunciation, 8. n. 

English words cognate with Lat., 18, 19. 

enim, use, 324. h; position, 324. j 9 599. b. 

-ensimus (or -esimus), numeral adj. end- 
ing, 133. n. i. 

-ensis, gentile ending, 249. 

Enumeration, primum . . . deinde, 322. d. N, 

-enus, adj. ending, 249. 

Envy, vbs. of, w. dat., 367. 

eo, used w. supine in -urn, 428. i, 509. n. 1 . 

eo, used w. quo, 414. a; w. compar., id. ; 
approaching abl. of cause, id. n. 

e5 cdnsilio ut, 531. 1. N. K 

Epicene nouns, 34. n. 

Epistolary tenses, 479. 

epitome, decl., 44. 

epulum, plur. -ae, 106. 6, 

equester, decl., 115. a. 

equidem, 322./. N. 

er- for es-, primary suffix, 234. II. 17. 

er-, stem-ending, 63. Exc. 2. 

-er, nom. ending, decl. II, 45-47; decl. 
Ill, 61. 4, 65. a; gend., 85; -er, adjs. in, 
111, 112, 115; compar. of these, 125. 

erga, w. ace. after adjs., 385. b. 

ergo, use, 324. i; w. gen., 359. b. 

-erim, -er5, as tense-ending, 169. c, d. 

-ernus, adj. ending, 250. 

ero-, noun stems in, decl. II, 50; ero-, adj* 
stems in, 111. a. n. 

es, root of esse, 15. 4; 170. b. N. 

es- (os-), primary suffix, 234. II. 17. 

-Ss, in nom. plur. of Greek nouns, 81. 4; 
gend. of nouns in, 85. 



-es, gen. of Greek nouns in, decl. II, 52. a, 
gen. ending, decl. V, 98. n. 

-es, list of nouns in, p. 30. ftn. 2; gend., 
86 ; formation, 238. a. 

esse, conj., 170; forms of, in other lan- 
guages, id. b. N.; compounds of, 198; 
case after, 284; dat. of poss. w., 373; 
future part. w. (first periph. conj.), 
498. a, b ; position of forms of, 598. c,j. 

est, united with other words, 13. n. ; est 
qui etc., 535. a; est cum, 535. a. N. 8 ; est 
ut, 569. 3. 

Esteeming, vbs. of, constr., 393. 

-ester (-estris), adj. ending, 250; a noun- 
ending, 254, 11. 

estur, essetur, pass, forms of edo, 201. a. 

et, use, 324. a ; et . . . et, 323. e ; et re- 
peated or omitted, 323. c. 

et, -que, or atque translated but, 324. d. n. 

etenim, use, 324. h, k, 

Ethical dative, 380. 

etiam, use, 322. a; in answers, 336. a. 1. 

etiam si, concessive, 527. c. 

etsi, use, 527. c. 

-etum, noun ending, 254. 8. 

-eus, Greek names in, 52. e; -eus, patro- 
nymic ending, 244: adj. ending, 247, 
249, 254. 10. 

evenit ut, 568. ftn. 2. 

ex (e), 220. b ; use, 221. 11 ; in compounds, 
267. a, 402; abl. w., instead of part, 
gen., 346. c: in vbs. w. dat., 381; w. 
prons. etc., 403. a. n. 1 ; to express place 
from which, 426. 1; expressing posi- 
tion, 429. b ; after its noun, 435 ; w. abl, 
of gerund, 507. 

excello, w. dat., 368. 3. 

Exchanging, vbs. of, 417. b. 

Exclamation, form of, 333. n. ; nom. in, 
339. a; ace. in, 397. d\ w. infin., 462. 

Exclamatory questions, 462. a. 

Exclamatory sentences, 269. c; nom. in, 
339. a ; gen. in, 359. a ; ace. in, 397. d. 

Existence, general expressions of, 535. a. 

exlex, defect., 122. c. 

Expecting, hoping, etc., vbs. of, w. ind. 
disc, 580. c; w. complem. inf., id. n. 

expensum, 496. n. 4 . 

exsilio, w. abl., 404. a. 

exspes, defect., 122. g. 

exsulto, w. abl., 404. a. 

exteri, use, 130. 6. 

exterior, 130. b. 

extremus, form, 130. a. ftn. 2. 

exuo, constr., 364. 

F, original sound of, 1. b. N. 
faber, decl., 112. a. 

fac, imv., 182, 204; fac (ut), w. subjv., 
449. c ; fac ne, in prohibition, 450. n. 2 , 
facigs, decl., 98. a. 






INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS 



455 



facilis, compar., 126; w. supine, 510. n. 2 . 

facio, accent of comps. of, 12. a. Exc; 
forms of, omitted, 319. a; w. abl., 403. 
c; w. names of authors, 497. d. n. ; 
facere ut, 568. N. 1 , 

Factitive ace, 386; verbs, 273. n. 1 . 

-facto, in compounds, 266. a. 

faenebris, decl., 115. n. 1 . 

faex, decl., 103. g. 2. 

faUit, w. ace, 388. c. 

falsus, compar., 131. a. 

fames, abl. of, 76. b. n. *, 98. d. 

familiaris, decl., 76. b. 2. 

familias, in pater familias etc., 43. b. 

fas, indecl., 103. a; w. supine in -u, 510. 

faux, decl., 101. N. \ 103./. 4. 

Favor, vbs. of, w. dat., 367. 

fax, decl., 103. g. 2. 

Fearing, vbs. of, w. inf., 456; w. ne, ne 
non, ut, 564. 

febris, decl., 75. 6, 76. b. 1. 

Feeling, nouns of, w. gen., 348; imper- 
sonal vbs. of, 208. b, 354. 6; animi w. 
vbs. and adjs. of, 358; gen. w. vbs. 
of, 354; ace. w. vbs. of, 388. a; quod- 
clause w. vbs. of, 572. 6. 

Feet in Prosody, 608-610. 

fellx, compar., 124. 

Feminine, rule for gend., 32. 

femur, decl., 105. g. 

-fer, comps. of, 50; decl., 111. a. 

fer, imperative, 182. 

fero, conj., 200; acceptum (expensum) ferre, 
496. n. 4 ; comps. of, 200. a. 

ferre, ferrem, for fferse etc., p. 110. ftn. 3. 

Festivals, plural names of, 101. 2 ; in -alia, 
254.7. 

-ficus, adjs. in, comparison of, 127. a. 

fides, decl., 96. 

fido (confido) , semi-deponent, 192 ; w. dat., 
367; w. abl., 431. 

fidus, compar., 131. a. 

fieri, constr. w. abl., 403. c. 

Fifth Declension, 95-97. 

Figura etymologica, 598. m. 

filia, decl., 43. e; filius, voc, 49. c. 

Filling, words of, w. abl., 409. a ; w. gen., 
id. n. 

Final Clauses, defined, 279. d; constr. of, 
530-532 ; as subst. clauses, 563. 

Final conjunctions, 223. 6. 6, 224. II. e. 

Final syllables, rules of quantity, 604; 
vowels, id. a-h. 

finis, decl., 76. b. 

Finite verb, defined, 154. n.: subi. of, 
339. 

fio, conj., 204; in compounds, id. b; de- 
fective compounds of, id. c; quantity 
of i in, 603. a. 3. 

First Conjugation, prin. parts, 173; pres. 
stem, how formed, 176. a; formation, 



179. a, 259; paradigms, 184; vbs. of, 

209; vbs. of, how formed, 259. 
First Declension, 40-42. 
fisus, as pres. part., 491. 
fit ut, 568. ftn. 2, 569. 2. 
Fitness, adjs. of, w. dat., 384, 385. a. 
flagito, constr., 563. 
flocci, gen. of value, 417. a. 
For, when expressed by pro, 379. n. 
foras, 103. c. 4, 215. 3. 
fore, 170. a ; perf . part, w., 164. c. n. ; fore 

ut, 569. a. 
forem, 170. a. 

fores, plur. only, 101. 4, 103. c. 4. 
Forgetting, vbs. of, 350; w. inf., 456. 
foris (locative), 103. c. 4, 215. 4, 427. a. 
Formation of words, 227-267. 
Forms of the verb, 180 ff . 
fors, forte, 103. c. 1. 
forsan, 447. b. N. 
forsitan (fors sit an), 216. N. ; w. subi v., 

447. a. 
fortasse, 447. b. 
Fourth Conjugation, prin. parts, 173; 

pres. stem, how formed, 176. a, 179. d; 

paradigm, 187; list of vbs., 212; vbs., 

how formed, 262. 
Fourth Declension, 88-94. 
Fractional expressions, 135. e, 637. 
fraus, decl., 71. 6. 
Freedom, adjs. of, w. abl., 402. a; vbs. 

of, 401. 
French, derivations through, 19. N. 2 . 
Frequentative verbs, 263. 2. 
fretus, w. abl., 431. a. 
Fricatives, 4. 5. 
frugi, defect, noun, 103./. 1 ; as adj., 122. 

6; compar., 129; constr., 382. 1. n. '*. 
fruor, fungor, w. abl., 410; w. ace, id. a. 

n. 1 ; gerundive, 503. n. 2 . 
fugit, w. ace, 388. c. 
fui, derivation of, 170. b. N. 
Fulness, adjs. of, 349. a. 
funebris, decl., 115. N. 1 . 
fungor, see fruor. 
Future conditions, 516; in ind. disc, 

589. a. 
Future tense, use, 472; of inf. pass., 

how formed, 203. a; of imv., 449; ind. 

for imv., id. 6; in indirect questions, 

575. 
Future Infinitive, how formed, 164. 3. 

6, c, 193. n. ; expressed with fore or 

futurum esse, 569. a; (rarely) in con- 
trary to fact conditions in ind. disc, 

589. b. N. 3. 
Future Participle, use, 158. b, 489, 498, 

517. d; fut. pass, part., 500. 
Future Perfect tense, suffix of, 169. c; 

use of, 478 ; represented in subjv., 4S4. 

c ; in conditions, 516. c. 



456 



INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS 



futurum esse ut, see fore ut ; futurum fuisse 

ut, 589. 6. 3 and n. 2. 
Futurum in praeterito, 511. ftn. 1, 

G (the character), 1. a and n. 

Games, plur. names of, 101. 2. 

gaudeo, conj., 192; w. abl., 431; w. quod 
or ind. disc, 572. b. 

Gems, gend. of, 32 and 6, 48. Exc. 

Gender, kinds of, 30 ; general rules for, 
31-34; common, epicene, 34; change 
of gend., p. 18. ftn.; nouns, decl. I, 
gend., 42; decl. 11,48; nouns, decl. Ill, 
gend. according to endings, 84-87; of 
nouns, decl. IV, 90, 91; decl. V, 97; 
Syntax: agreement in gend., 280; of 
appositives, 282. c; of adjs., 286; adjs. 
w. nouns of different genders, 287 (cf . 
289. c) ; of rel., 306. b. 

General conditions, defined, 513. 2 ; constr. 
of, 518 ; relatives in, 520. 

General truths after past tense (in 
sequence of tenses), 485. d; in pres., 
465 ; in general condition, 518. a. 

Genitive, defined, 35. b; terminations 
of, 37; plur. in -um, 38./; gen. in -al 
and -as, decl. I, 43. a, b ; in -I for -ii, 
decl. II, 49. b ; in -i of proper nouns of 
decl. Ill, 52. a; gen. plur. in -um (-om), 
for-orum, 49. d\ -um for -ium, decl. Ill, 
78; -5s for -is, 81. 1 ; gen. plur. in -um, 
92. b ; in -I or -e for -ei, decl. V, 98. n. ; 
gen. plur. wanting, 103. g. 2 ; of adjs. in 
-ius, 113 ; gen. plur. in -ium or-um, 121. b. 

Genitive, Syntax, 342-356 ; general use, 
342. Subjective gen., 343. n. 1 . Posses- 
sive gen., 343; in app. w. poss. pron., 
302. e ; compared w. dat., 373. n. ; gen. 
in predicate, 343. 6, c; gen. of adj. 
for neut. nom., 343. c. n. 1 ; gen. of sub- 
stance or material, 344; for app., 343. 
d; gen. of quality, 345. Partitive, 346. 
Objective, 347 ff . ; w. adjs., 349, 385. 
c; w. vbs. of memory, 350; charge 
and penalty, 352; of feeling, 354; w. 
impers., miseret etc., 354. 6; w. refert 
and interest, 355 ; of plenty and want, 
356 ; of exclamation, 359. a ; w. potior, 
357. a ; w. other vbs., id. b ; w. egeo and 
indiged, 356. n. ; gen. for abl., id. ; gen. 
replaced by dat., 366. b ; of value, 417; 
gen. of gerundive, 504. 

genius, voc. of, 49. c. 

Gens, or family, names, 108. 

Gentile adjectives, 244. 

gentilis, 76. a. 2. 

genu, decl., 89; gend., 91. 

genus, decl., 64. 

-ger, compounds of, 50; decl., 111. a. 

Gerund, form, 155. 6; meaning, 159. a; 
gerundive used instead, 503. Syntax, 



502-507; gen. of, 504; w. direct obj. t 

id. a ; pred. use, purpose, id. a.m. 1 ; w. 

obj/gen., id. c; dat. of, 505; in law 

phrases etc., id. b ; ace. of, 506 and n. 1 ; 

abl. of, 507; gerund coordinated w. 

nominal constr. and in app., 503. a. 

N. 2 ; w. direct obj., 503. a. n. 1 . 
Gerundive, meaning and form, 155. a and 

ftn. 3, 158. d ; in -endus or -undus, p. 89. 

ftn. 1; of dep. vb., 190. d; use as part. 

or adj., 500; of utor, id. 3; to denote 

purpose after certain vbs., id. 4 ; used for 

gerund, 503. Gerundive constructions 

in cases, gen., 504; dat., 505; ace, 506; 

abl., 507. Impersonal w. esse, w. ace, 

500. 3. 
gibber, decl., 111. a. 
gin-, stem-ending, 61. 2. 
Giving, vbs. of, w. gerundive, 500. 4. 
glaber, decl., 112. a. 
glacies, decl., 98. a. 
glis, decl., 71. 6. 
glorior, w. abl., 431. 
Glyconic verse, 623. 1, 624, 625. 1, 12. 
Gnomic perfect, 475. 
-go, nouns in, from stem gin-, 61. 2; 

gend., 86. 
gracilis, decl., 122. a; compar. 126. 
Grammar, how developed, 268. 
Grammatical gender, 30. b. 
gratia, w. gen., 359. b, 404. c; w. gen. of 

gerund, 533. 
gratificor, w. dat., 368. 3. 
gratulor, w. dat., id. 

Greek accusative (syneedochical) , 397. b. 
Greek forms compared w. Latin, pp. 13, 

14, 19, 26, 55, 58, 76, 80, 83, 126, 142, 

143, 150, 153. 
Greek nouns, decl. I, 44; decl. II, 52; 

decl. Ill, 81, 82, 83. 
Greek proper names, quantity of, 603. 4. 
Groups of words, conjunctions w., 323. c. 
grus, decl., 79. a. 
Guilt, adjs. of, w. gen., 349. a. 

H (breathing), 4; omitted in spelling, 
6. d. N. 2 ; in prosody, 603. a, 612. e. 

habed, w. infinitive, 460. a; w. perfect 
participle, 497. 6; future imperative 
habeto in sense of consider , 449. a. 

habilis, w. dat. of gerund etc., 505. a. ftn. 

hactenus, 221. 26. N. 1 . 

Hadria, gen., 42. Exc. 

haec for hae, 146. N. 2 . 

haereo, w. abl., 368. 3. n. 

Happening, vbs. of, constr., 569. 2. 

Have, perf. w., origin, 497. b. ftn. 

have (ave), defective verb, 206. g. 

Having, vbs. of, w. gerund., 500. 4. 

hebes, decl., 86. a; compar., 124. 

Help, vbs. of, w. dat., 367. 



INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS 



457 



Hemiolic measures, 609. d. 

Heroic verse, 615. 

heros, decl., 82. 

Hesitation, clauses of, w. quin, 558, 559 ; 
ybs. of, constr., 456. 

Heteroclite nouns, 105; adjs., 122. a. 

Heterogeneous nouns, 106. 

Hexameter yerse, 615. 

Hiatus, 612. g. 

Hiber, decl., 50. c. 

hibus, 146. n. 2 . 

hie, 146, N.i; decl., 146; use, 297. o, e,/; 
quantity, 604.,;, Exc. 

Hidden quantity, 11. /and N. 

hiemps (for hiems), 15. 11. 

hilaris (-us), 122. a. 

Himself (ipse, se), 298. c. N. 2 . 

Hindering, vbs. of, with ne or quominus, 
or inf., 558. b and n. 

Hindrance, vbs. of, w. quominus, 558. b ; 
w. negatives, followed by quin, 558, 
559. 

Historical infinitive, 463 ; takes secondary 
sequence, 485./. 

Historical perfect, 161. 2, 473. 

Historical present, 469 ; followed by pri- 
mary or secondary tenses, 485. e. 

hodie, loc. form, 98. b, 215. 5. 

honor (-os), decl., 62. n. 2 . 

Hoping, verbs of, with ind. disc, 580. c; 
w. complem. inf., id. N. 

Horace, metres of, 626. 

horizon, decl., 83. d. 

Hortatory subjunctive, 439; in conces- 
sion, 440 ; in proviso, 528 ; in obligation, 
439. b ; w. force of protasis, 521. b. 

hortor, constr., 563. 

hospes, decl., 121. a. 4. 

hospita (fern, of hospes), 121. e. 

huiusmodl, 146. b. 

humi, 49. a ; locative use of, 427. a. 

humilis, compar., 126. 

Hundreds, how declined, 134. c. 

Hypotaxis, 268. 

I, as vowel and as cons., 1, 10; i as tran- 
sient sound between cons, i and a pre- 
ceding vowel, 6. c (cf. 11. e). 

i-, primary suffix, 234. I. 2. 

i, for e in conj. II, 179. 6.2; for -5 in conj. 
Ill, id. c. 1 ; lost in vbs. in -io of conj. 
Ill, id. and e ; inserted in vb. stem, 176. 
6.2. 

-I in Greek voc, 82. 

.-i, (single) in gen. of nouns in -ius (-ium), 
49. b ; in gen. of nouns in -es, 52. a ; in 
abl. of decl. Ill, 76 ; in loc. of decl. Ill, 
p. 34. ftn. 1 ; in gen., decl. IV, 92. a ; in 
gen., dat., decl. V, 98. d. n. ; in dat. of 
unus etc., 113 ; in pres. pass, inf., p. 286* 
ftn. 1 ; in perfect, 163. ftn. 3. 



i-stems, decl. Ill, 66-78; confused, 73; 

signs of, 74; in adj., 117; cases retain- 
ing -i, cf . 74, 76, 114, 116. N. ; i-stems in 

vbs., 179. d. 
-ia, ending of abstract nouns, 241. 
-ia, nom. and ace. plur. decl. Ill, 74. b ; of 

adjs., 116, 117. 
-ia for -ies, decl. V, 98. c. 
iacio, comps. of, 6. d, 603. /. n. 3 . 
iam, derivation, 215. 6; use, 322. b; w. 

impf., 471. c. n. 
Iambic verse, 613; trimeter, 618; other 

forms, 619. 
Iambus, 609. a. 2. 

iamdiu, w. pres., 466; w. impf., 471. b. 
iamdudum, w. pres., 466 ; w. impf. 471. b ; 

w. imperative, 466. N. 2 . 
-ibam for -iebam, conj. IV, 183. 1. 
-ibo for -iam, 183. 1. 
Ibus, 146. N. s. 
-icius, 247. 

Ictus, 608. n., 611. a. 
-icus, 249. 

id-, stem-ending, 83. 6. 
id genus, 397. a. 
id quod, 307. d. 
id temporis, 346. 3, 397. a. 
idcirco, as correl., 324. i; w. final clause, 

531. 1. n.i. 
idem, decl., 146; derivation, 146. n. 9 ; w. 

dat., 384. n. i ; w. atque or rel., id. n. 2 ; 

used emphatically, 298. a; equiv. to 

adv., id. b. 
Ides (13th or 15th of month), how reck- 
oned, 631. 6. 
-ides (-ides) , in patronymics, 244. 
idoneus, compar., 128; w. dat. of gerund 

etc., 505. a. ftn. 2. 
idoneus qui, 535. /. 
-idus, verbal adj. ending, 251. 
Idus, decl. IV, gender, 90. Exc. (See Ides.) 
-ie, in voc. of adjs. in -ius, 110. a. 
iecur, decl., forms from different stems, 

79. c, 105. g. 
iens (part, of eo), decl., 119. 
-ier in inf. pass., 183. 4. 
-ies, noun ending, 241 ; in decl. V = -ia, 

decl. I, 98. c. 
igitur, meaning, 324. i; position, id.,;, 
ignis, decl., 76. b. 1. 
-ii (or -i), in gen., decl. II, 49. b and ftn.; 

of adjs., 110. a. 
ii, iis, for i, is, from is, 146. 
-ile, noun ending, 254. 6. 
-ilis, -bilis, verbal adj. ending, 252. 
-ilis, nominal adj. ending, 248. 
Illative conjunctions, 223. a. 4, 224. I. d. 
ille, forms, 146. n. *, 6 ; decl., 146; use, 

297. b, e ; combined w. -ce, 146. a. N. K 
illic, decl., 146. a. 
-illo, vbs. ending in, 263. 3. 



458 



INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS 



illus, diminutive ending, 243. 

illustris, decl., 115. n. 1 . 

-im, ace. ending, decl. Ill, 73-76. 

-im, in pres. subjv., 183. 2. 

imber, decl., 66, 67, 76. b. 

immane quantum, 575. d. 

immo, how used, 329. 

Imperative mood, 154. b ; how used, 157. 
c; terminations, 163. b, 179. e; die, due, 
fac, fer, 182 ; some vbs. used chiefly in, 
206. g; w. iam dudum, 466. N. 2 ; in 
commands, 448 ; 3d pers., 448. a ; forms 
in ind. disc, 588; fut., 449 and a; 
various periphrases for imv., 449, c; 
imperative as protasis, 521. b. 

Imperative Sentence, 269. d. 

Imperfect tense, defined, 160. a, 471 ; use, 
470 ; in descriptions, id. a ; w. iam diu 
etc., id. b ; inceptive and conative, id. e ; 
w. iam, id. n. ; of surprise, id. d ; in 
dialogue, id. e; = could, etc., id. /; 
epistolary, 479 and n. ; represented by 
perf. subjv., 485. b. 3; imperf. subjv., 
sequence, id. g, h, 584. a and n. 

impero, constr., 563. 

Impersonal construction of pass. w. infin. 
clause, 566. b, 582 and a. 

Impersonal verbs, synopsis of, 207 ; classi- 
fied, 208; passive of intransitives, id< 
d, 372; impersonals, miseret etc., w. 
gen., 354, b ; libet, licet, w. dat., 368. 1 ; 
ace. w. decet etc., 388. c. 

impertio, constr., 364. 

impetro, constr., 563, 568. ftn. 2. 

impetus, defect., 103. d. 

impleo, constr., 409. a. n. 

implied, constr., 364. 

impono, constr., 430. 

Imus, 130. a. n. 2 . 

in-, neg. prefix, 267. d. 1. 

in-, stem-ending, 61. 2; in-, 83. a. 

in, prep., use, 220. c, 221. 12; comp. w. 
vbs., 267. a; in, w. ace. or abl., 259. e 
(cf. 430) ; w. ace, penalty, 353. 2. n. ; 
vbs. comp. with, w. dat., 370 ; in w. ace, 
w. adjs., 385. b ; in citations, 428. d. n. 2 ; 
place where, 426. 3 ; in idioms of time, 
424. e; w. abl. of gerund, 507. 

Inceptive or Inchoative verbs, 263. 1. 

Inclination, adjs. of, constr., 384, 385. b. 

inclutus, compar., 131. a. 

Incomplete action, tenses of. See Con- 
tinued action. 

Indeclinable nouns, gender of, 33; list 
of, 103. a; adjectives, 122. 6. 

Indefinite antecedent, relative with, w. 
subjv., 535. a and n. ' 2 . 

Indefinite pronouns, decl., 148-151. Syn- 
tax, 309-315; indefinite relative may 
introduce conditional clause, 512. n., 
519. 



Indefinite subject omitted, 318. 6 ; use of 
2d person for, 439. a; in general con- 
ditions, 518. a ; licet clarum fieri, 455. N. 

Indefinite value, 417 and a. 

Indicative mood, 154. b ; how used, 157. a, 
437; for Eng. subjv., id. a; in apod, of 
conditions contrary to fact, 517. b, c, 
522. a ; in causal clauses, 540 ; in clause 
with quod, 572; in deliberative ques- 
tions, 444. a. N. 

indigeo, w. gen., 356. N. 

indignus, w. abl., 418. b ; w. qui and subjv., 
535./. 

Indirect Discourse, origin etc., 577; 
list of verbs that take ind. disc, 579, 
ftn.; direct and indir. quotation, 578. 
Moods in ind. disc, 580; verb of say- 
ing implied, id. a. Subj. ace, 580. 
Subord. clause when explanatory, 583 ; 
clauses w. rel. which is equivalent to 
demonstr., id. b. Tenses of inf. in ind. 
disc, 584; tenses of subjv., 585; subjv. 
depending on perf. inf., id. a; pres. 
and perf. after secondary tense (reprae- 
sentdtio), id. b. Conditional sentences 
in ind. disc, 589; questions, 586 ; delib- 
erative subjv., 587; commands, 588; 
prohibition, id. N. 2 . Informal ind. 
disc, 591. 1,592. 

Indirect object, 274, 361, 362, 366, 367. 

Indirect Questions, defined, 330, 331 ; Syn- 
tax, 331. n., 332. b. N., 573-575; fut. 
tense in, 575. a ; deliberative subjv. in, 
id. b ; indie in (early Lat.), id. c; num 
in, 332. b. n. 

Indirect quotation, 578. 

Indirect reflexive, 300. 2 and 6. 

Indo-European, 14, 18, 19. 

induco, w. names of authors, 497. d. K. . 

induo, double constr. of, 364. 

ineo, constr., 370. b. 

ineptus, constr., 505. a. ftn. 

inermis or -us, 122. a. 

infera, defect., 111. 6, cf. p. 56. ftn. 2; 
compar., 130. b. 

inferi, meaning in plur., 130. b. 

inferior, comparison, 130. b. 

Infinitive Clauses, as subj. or obj., 452; 
w. pass, vbs., 582 and a. See also In- 
direct Discourse. Cf . also 459. 

Infinitive Mood, 154. b and ftn. ; tenses 
of, 164. 3. b, 486 ; how used, 157. d ; pass, 
in -ier, 183. 4; fut. inf. of deponents, 
190. c; subject in ace, 397. e. 

Infinitive Mood, Syntax, 451-463 ; used 
as subject, 452; complementary inf., 
456; vbs. having subjv. or inf., 457 (cf. 
563); inf. for obj. clause, 563. n. ; w. 
subject ace, 459; case of predicate 
noun, 581 and n. 3 ; inf. of purpose, 460 ; 
w. adjs., in poetry, 461 ; of result, id. a ; 



INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS 



459 



as pure noun, id. b; in exclamations, 

462 (sequence, 482. n.). Historical inf., 

463. Tenses of inf., 486; perf. instead 

of pres., id. d, e; fore ut etc., for fut. 

inf., 569. a. Inf. in ind. disc, 579; 

tenses, 584. 
Infinitive used as noun, gender, 33; w. 

gen., 343. c. (See also Infinitive Mood, 

Syntax.) 
infitias, defect., 103. b. 6; use, 428. i. 
Inflection, defined, 21; terminations of, 

id. 6; how modified, 28; of decl. and 

conj., 22. 
Influence, vbs. of, w. ut-clause, 563. 
Informal Indirect Discourse, 591, 592. 
infra, use, 220. a, 221. 13. 
ingens, decl., 121. a. 3; compar., 131. b. 
iniuria, as abl/of manner, 412. b, 
iniussu, defect., 94. c. 
inops, decl., 121. a. 3, b. 1. 
inquam, inquit, 206. b ; position of, 599. c. 
Inseparable particles, 267. b. 
Insertion of consonants (p in sumpsi), 

15. 11, 639. 
Insidiae, dat. w., 367. d. 
inspergo, constr., 364. 
Instar, indecl., 103. a; w. gen., 359. 6. 
insto, constr., 563. 
Instrument, abl. of, 409. 
Instrumental case, 35. N. (cf. 338, 398); 

as adv., 215. 4; source of several abl. 

constructions, 408. 
Insulam, ad, 428. a. 
integer, decl., 112. a. 
Integral part, subjv. of, 591, 593. 
integrum est ut, 568. 
Intensive pronoun, 146. N. 7 , 8 , 298. of. 
Intensive vbs., 263. 2 and b. 
inter, use, 220. a, 221. 14 ; in comp., 267. a ; 

vbs. comp. w., 370 ; position, 435 ; inter se 

(reciprocal), 145. c, 301./; inter sicarios, 

353. 2 ; inter, w. gerund, 506 and n. K 
intercludo, constr., 364 and N. 2 . 
interdico, constr., 364. N. 1 . 
interest, constr., 355; w. ad, id. b; how 

to express degree of interest, id. n. 2 . 
interior, compar., 130. a. 
Interjections, defined, 20; list, 226; w. 

dat., 379. a. 
Interlocked order of words, 598. h. 
Intermediate clauses, Syntax of, 591- 

593. 
Interrogative ad vs., use, 333; position, 

598. b. 
Interrogative particles, list of, 217. d; 

use, 331-333. 
Interrogative pronouns, 148-151; use, 

333; position, 598. b. 
Interrogative sentences, 269. b ; forms of, 

330-336. 
intra (interior), 130. a; derivation, 215. 4. 



Intransitive verbs, 273. 2, 274. n. ; used 
impersonally in pass., 208. d; dat. w., 
366 ff . ; used transitively, w. ace. and 
dat., 369 (cf . 388. a. n.) ; w. cognate ac^., 
390 ; having passive sense, w. ab, 405. a. 

-inus, adj. ending, 249. 

inutilis, w. dat. of gerund etc., 505. a. 

invictus, compar., 131. a. 

invitus, compar., 131. a. 

-io, noun ending, 238. b ; gend., 86. 

-id, vbs. in, conj. Ill, 176. b. 2; forms 
of, 179. c, e; paradigm, 188; conj. IV, 
179. d; derivation, 262. 

iocus, plur. in -i or -a, 106. b. 

Ionic measure, 609. c ; verse, 626. 16. 

ip-, stem-ending, 56. a. 

ipse, formation, 146. n. 7 , 8 ; decl., 146 ; use, 
298. c ; used instead of reflexive, 300. b. 

iri, in fut. inf. pass., 203. a. 

Ironical statement not different in form 
from question, 332. a. N. 

Irrational measures, 609. e, 623. n. 

-is-, -iss-, -sis-, dropped in perf., 181. b. n. 2 . 

is, decl., 146; use, 152, 297. d. e; used 
emphatically, 298. a; used instead of 
reflexive, 300. b. 

-is, nom. ending, gend., 86; -is, patro- 
nymic, 244. 

-is, for -iis in decl. I, 43. e. n. 2 ; nom. and 
ace. plur., decl. Ill, 77 (cf . 73) ; of adjs., 
117, 121. c; Greek nom. ending, 83. b. 

-is, nouns in, see it-. 

Islands, names of, loc. use, 427. 3, 428. e ; 
from which, 427. 1 ; to which, id. 2. 

-isse, -issem, vb. ending, see 181. b. 

-isso, vbs. ending in, 263. b. 

iste, shortened to ste, 146. N. 5 ; decl., 146 ; 
use, 297. c. 

istic, decl., 146. a. 

It, as sign of Impersonals, 207. ftn. 

it- as stem-ending, 58. b ; decl., 78, 121. a. 4. 

ita, correl. with ut, 323. g; in answers, 
336. a; ita ut, 537. 2. n. 2 . 

itaque, accent, 12. a; compared with 
erg5, 324. i ; used with ergo, id. k ; posi- 
tion of, 599. b. 

iter, stem of, 79. c. 

Iterative subjunctive, 518. c. 

Iterative verbs (-to, -it5, -so), 263. 2. 

-ito, vbs. in, 263. 2. 

-itus, adj. ending, 246. 

iubar, decl., 76. a. 3. 

iubeo, w. ace, 367. a; w. inf., 563. a; in 
pass., 566. c. 

iucundus, constr., 510. N. 2 . 

iugerum, defect. 103. d. 3; decl., 105. b; 
measure, 636. 

-ium, gen. plur., decl. Ill, 74. a; of adjs, 
114. a, 117, 121. b. 

-ium, noun ending, 241. 6. 

iungo, w. abl. or dat., 368. 3. N., 413. N. 



460 



INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS 



Iuppiter, stem and decl., 79 and b ; plural, 
100. a ; derivation, 266. c. 

-ius, adjs. in, gen., voc. of, 110. a; forma- 
tion of adjs. in, 247, 252. n. 

ius (broth), decl., 103. g. 1. 

-ius, gen. sing, ending, 113 ; quantity, id. 
c, 603. a. Exc. 1. 

iussu, defect., 94. c, 103. b. 5. 

iusto, w. compar., 406. a. 

iuvat, w. ace, 388. c. 

iuvenis, decl., 62. n. 3 , 78. 1; masc. adj., 
122. d; compar., 131. c. 

iuvo, w. ace, 367. a. 

iuxta, position, 435. 

-iv-, in perf., 211. d. 

-ivus, yerbal adj. ending, 251. N. 

J (the character), 5 s, 1 ; Eng. sound, id. 
Julian Calendar, 630, 631. e. 

K, supplanted by C, 1. a. N. 

kalendae, 631. a. 

Kindred forms, Latin and English, 18, 19. 

Kindred signification, ace. of, 390. 

Knowing, vbs. of, w. ace. and inf., 459. 

Knowledge, adjs. of, w. gen., 349. a. 

ko-(ka-), primary suffix, 234. II. 12. 

L, nouns in -1, gend., 87; adj. stems in 

1-, 117. a. 
Labials, 4. 2 ; stems, decl. Ill, 56 and a. 
laboro, w. abl., 404. a. 
lacus, decl., 89 ; dat. and abl. plur. in-ubus, 

92. c. 
laedo, w. ace, 367. a. 
laetor, laetus, w. abl., 431. 
lampas, decl., 82. 
lateo, w. ace, 396. c. 
latet, w. ace, 388. c. N. *. 
latifundium, 265. 2. 
latus, part., derivation, 200. ftn. 2. 
Learning, vbs. of, w. inf., 456. 
Length, expressed by gen., 345. b. 
-lens, -lentus, adj. endings, 245. 
Ie5, decl., 62. 

Letters, classification of, 1-5. 
levis, decl., 116 ; compar., 124. 
leviter, compar., 218. 
liber, adj., decl., 50, 111. a. 
Liber, decl., 50. 
liberi, noun, 50, 101. 3. 
libet, impers., 208. c. n. ; w. dat., 368. 1. 
licet, impers., synopsis, 207; use, 208. c. 

N. ; w. dat., 368. 1; w. predicate dat., 

455. 1; w. subjv., meaning although, 

527. b ; licet earn, licet me ire, licet mini 

ire, 565 and N. 2 . 
Likeness, adjs. of, w. dat., 384; w. gen., 

385. c. 
Limiting word, meaning of, 276. b. 
Linguals, 4. 3 ; stems in, decl. Ill, 58. a. 






linter, decl., 66. 

Liquids, 3, 4 ; stems in, decl. Ill, 61-64. 

-lis, adjs. in, compar., 126. 

Litotes, 326. c. 

-Hum, noun ending, 241. c. 

11-, as stem ending, 62. n. K 

lo- (la-), primary sufiix, 234. II. 10. 

Locative abl., 426. 3; idiomatic use, 
429. 3; adverbial forms, 215. 5. 

Locative, defined, 35. A, p. 34. ftn. (cf. 
360) ; in abl., 398, 421 ; of decl. I, 43. c ; 
decl. II, 49. a; decl. Ill, 80; decl. IV 
(domi), 93. n. i ; decl. V, 98. b ; as adv., 
215. 5; w. abl. in apposition, 282. d\ 
relative adv. used to refer to, 308. g ; 
animi, 358 ; loe used to express where, 
426. 3; forms (domi etc.), 427. a. 

loco, abl. without prep., 429. 1. 

loco, vb., constr., 430. 

locum capere, w. dat. of gerund etc., 505. 

locus, plur. -i or -a, 106. b. 

Logaoedic Verse, 623-625. 

Long and Short, see Quantity. 

longius, without quam, 407. c. 

ludicer, decl., 112. a. 

lues, defect., 103. d. 1. 

lux, decl., 103. g. 2. 

M, final, elision of, 612. d. N.,/; inserted 
in verb root, 176. c. 2. 

-m, sign of ace, 338; omitted in inscrip- 
tions, 46. N. K 

macer, decl., 112. a. 

macte virtute, use and constr., 340. c 
and n. 

magis, as sign of compar., 128; comps. 
of, w. quam, 434. 

magm, gen. of value, 417. 

magnus, comparison, 129. 

maiestatis, w. words of accusing etc., 
352. a. 

Main clause, defined, 278. 6. 

maior natu, 131. c. 

maiores, signification of, 101. 3 (cf. 102. 2), 
291. c. N.3. 

Making, vbs. of, constr., 393. 

male, compar., 218; compounds of, w. 
dat., 368. 2. 

maid, conj., 199. 

malus, compar., 129. 

mando, constr., 563. 

mane, defect, noun, 76. N. *, 103. b. 5. 

maneo, w. abl., 431. 

Manner, advs. of, 217. c ; abl. of, 412 and 
b ; hard to distinguish from abl. of speci- 
fication, 418. a. n ; manner implied in 
participle, 496. 

mansuetus, 266. c. 

manus, decl., 89; gend., 90. Exc. 

mare, decl., 76. a. 3, 78. 

marl, loe, 427. a. 



INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS 



461 



mas, decl., 71. 6. 

Masculine, rule for gender, 31. 

Masculine adjs., 122. d. 

Masculine csesura, 615. c. n. 

Material, adjectives denoting, 247; gen. 

of, 344; abl. of, 403 and 6, c, d. 
maxime, as sign of superl., 128. 
May, how expressed in Latin, 157. b. 
me dius fidius, 397. d. N. 2 . 
Means, nouns denoting, 239 ; abl. of, 408, 

409 ; participle implying means, 496. 
Measure, gen. of, 345. b (cf. 425. a). 
Measures in Prosody, 608-610 ; names of, 

609 ; contracted or resolved, 610. 
Measures * of value, 632-635; of length, 

636; of weight, 637; of capacity, 638. 
medeor, w. dat. or ace, 367. b. 
mediocris, decl., 115. a. n. 1 . 
Meditative verbs, 263. 2. b. 
medius (middle part of), 293. 
melior, decl., 120. 
melius est, w. infin. 486./. 
memini, conj., 205; in pres. sense, id. b, 

476 ; imperative of, 449. a ; memini w. 

ace. or gen., 350. a, b\ w. pres. inf., 

584. a and n. 
memor, decl., 121. a. 3. 
Memory, adjs. of, constr., 349. a ; vbs. of, 

constr., 350. 
men-, primary suffix, 234. II. 14. 
-men, -mentum, noun endings, 239. 
mensis, decl., 78. 2. 
meridies, gend., 97. 
-met (enclitic), 143. d. 
Metathesis, 640 (cf. 177. a. n.). 
Metre, see Prosody, 
metuo, w. dat. or ace, 367. c; w. subjv., 

564. 
meus, voc. mi, 110. a. n. ; syntax of, 

302. a, 343. a. 
Middle voice, 397. c, 410. N. 
Mile, 636. 
miles, decl., 57. 
Military expressions, dat. in, 382. 2 ; abl. 

of means instead of agent, 405. b. n. 1 ; 

abl. of accomp. without cum, 413. a. 
militiae (locative), 427. a. 
mille (milia), decl. and constr., 134. d. 
-mini, as personal ending, p. 76. ftn. 1. 
minime, compar., 218. a; use, 291. c. N. 2 ; 

w. neg. force, 392. a ; in answer (no) , 336. 

a. 2. 
ministro, w. infin., 460. a. 
minor natu, 131. c. 
minoris, gen. of value, 417 and c. 
minores, signification, 291. c. n. 3 . 
-minus, -mnus, verbal adjective endings, 

253. c. 
minus, compar., 218. a; use, 291. c. n. 2 ; 

w. si and qu5, = not, 329. a ; constr. 

without quam, 407. c. 



miror si, 572. 6. n. 

mirum quam (quantum), w. indicative, 
575. d. 

mis, tis, 143. a. n. 

misceo, w. abl. or dat., 368. 3. n., 413. a. n. 

miser, decl., Ill; compar., 125. 

misere, compar., 218. 

misereor, w. gen., 354. a. 

miseresco, w. gen., 354. a. 

miseret, 208. 6; w. gen. and ace, 354. 6; 
other constr., id. n. 

miseror, w. ace, 354. a. n. 

Mixed i-stems, 70-72. 

-mnus, see -minus. 

mo- (ma-), primary suffix, 234. II. 7. 

Modesty, subjunctive of, 447. 1. 

Modification of subj. or pred., 276. 

Modifiers, position of, 596-599 ; oi nega- 
tive, 599. a. 

modo (modo ne) with subjv. of proviso, 
528. 

modo . . . modo, 323. /. 

modo as abl. of manner, 412. b. 

molaris, decl., 76. a. 2. 

moneo, conj., 185 ; constr., 351, 390. d. N. K 

-monium, -monia, noun endings, 239. 

IVionoptotes, 103. b. 

Monosyllables, quantity, 604. a-c. 

Months, gend. of names of, 31 and n. ; 
decl. of names of in -ber, 115. a ; names 
of, 630; divisions of in Roman Calen- 
dar, 631. 

Moods, names and uses of, 154, 157 ; note 
on origin and nature of, 436; syntax 
of, 264-275, 437-463. 

Moods in temporal clauses, how distin- 
guished, 545, 546 and notes. 

Mora, in Prosody, 608. a. 

morigerus, decl., 111. a. N. 

mos est ut, 568. 

Mother, name of, w. prep., 403. a. N. 1 . 

Motion, how expressed, 363, 381. a, 402 ; 
indicated by compounds, 388. 6; im- 
plied, 428. J. N. 

Motion, end of, see End of Motion. 

Motive, how expressed, 404. b. 

Mountains, names of, gend., 31 and 6. 

Mulciber, decl., 50. c. 

muliebris, decl., 115. a. N. 1 . 

multa nocte, 293. n. 

Multiplication by distributives, 137. c. 

Multiplicatives, 139. 

multum (-5), compar., 218. a. 

multus, compar., 129. 

munus, decl., 105. g; munus est ut, 568, 

mus, decl., 71. 6. 

musica (-e), decl., 44. 

Musical accent, 611. 

mutare, constr., 417. 6. 

Mutes, 4; mute stems, decl. Ill, 56-64. 

mythos, decl., 52. 



462 



INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS 



N, 4; as final letter of stem (leon-), 61. 1 ; 
preceding stem vowel of vb.,176. 6.1; 
inserted in verb root (tango), 176. c. 2, 
177. 6. n. 

nais, decl., 82. 

-nam (enclitic), in questions, 333. a. 

nam, namque, use, 324. h, k. 

Names of men and women, 108. 

Naming, vbs. of, w. two aces., 393. 

Nasals, 4, 6 ; inserted in verb root, 176. c. 2. 

natalis, decl., 76. b. 2. 

natu (maior, minor), 131. c. 

natus etc., w. abl. of source, 403. a. 

navis, decl., 76. b. 1. 

-nd, -nt, vowel short before, 10. e. 

-ndus, verbal adj. ending, 253. a; gerun- 
dive in, 158. d. 

-ne (enclitic), use in questions, 332. a-c; 
w. force of nonne, 332. c; orig. mean- 
ing, id. n. 1 ; in double questions, 335 ; 
in exclamatory questions, 462. a ; quan- 
tity, 604. a. 1. 

ne, neg. of hortatory subjv., 439; in pro- 
hibitions, 450. 3 ; in concessions, 527. a ; 
w. subjv. of proviso, 528. 6; in final 
clauses, 531;=nedum, 532. n. 1 ; in 
substantive clauses, w. vbs. of hinder- 
ing, 558. 6; of fearing, 564; omitted 
after cave, 565. n. K 

ne" non, w. vbs. of fearing, 564. 

ne . . . quidem, use, 322./; after non, 327. 
1 ; after n5n modo, 217. e ; position of, 
599. 6. 

Nearness, adjs. of, w. dat., 384; w. gen., 
385. c. 

nee enim, 324. h. 

necesse, indecl., 103. N. 1 ; necesse est ut, 
568, 569. 2. N. 2 . 

Necessity, vbs. of, w. perf. pass, inf., 
486. d; in apod., 517. c, 522. a; w. ut- 
clause, 569. 2. 

necne in double questions, 335 and n. 

nedum, 532. n. *, 2 . 

nefas, indecl., 103. a; w. supine in-u, 510. 

Negation, perfect preferred in, 475. a. 

Negative answers, 332. 5, 336 and a. 2. 

Negative particles, list of, 217. e; use 
of, 325 ; two negatives, 326 ; neg. form 
different from English, 328 ; neg. con- 
dition, 525. a ; neg. proviso, 528 ; neg. 
purpose, 531; neg. result, 538, 568; 
position of, 599. a. 

nego, better than dico . . . non, 328, 580. 6. 

negotium do ut, 563. ftn. 2. 

nemo, use of, 314 ; gen. and abl. sing, re- 
placed by niillius and nulld, 314. a ; nem5 
n5n, 326. b ; nemo est qui, 535. a. n. 1 . 

neque (nee), and not, 328. a; neque enim, 
use, 324. h ; neque after a neg., 327. 2, 3. 

nequam, indecl., 122. 6; compar. of, 129. 

nequed, conj., 206. d. 



nequis, decl., 310. a, 

nescio an, 575. d. 

nescio quis, as indefinite without subjv., 
575. d. 

-neus, adj. ending, 247. 

Neuter ace. as adv., 214. d, cf. b. N. 

Neuter adjs., special uses of, 289. 

Neuter gender, general rule for, 33 ; cases 
alike in, 38. b ; endings of decl. Ill, 87. 

Neuter pron. as cognate ace, 390. c. 

Neuter verbs, see Intransitive Verbs. 

neve, connective in prohibitions, 450. n. 5 . 

nex, decl., 103. g. 2. 

ni-, primary suffix, 234. II, 5. 

ni, nisi, 512. n ; use of, 525. a. 

-nia, -nium, noun endings, 241. c. 

niger, decl., 112; distinct f rom ater, 131. 
d. n. 

nihil, indecl., 103. a; contr. to nil, 603. c. 

nihil!, gen. of value, 417. a. 

nihil! and nihilo, 103. a. N. 2 . 

nimirumquam,as indefinite without subjv., 
575. d. 

ningit, 208. a. 

nisi and s! non, 525. a; nisi s!, id. 3; 
nisi vero (forte), id. b. 

nitor, w. abl., 431. 

nix (stem and decl.), 79. d; plur., 100. 6. 

No, in answers, how expressed, 336. a. 2. 

no- (na-), primary suffix, 234. II. 4. 

no-, verb suffix, 176. b. 1. 

nol!, in prohibitions, 450. (1) and n . *. 

nolo, conj., 199; part. w. dat. of the per- 
son judging, 378. n. ; w. perf. act. inf. 
in prohibitions, 486. c. ; w. perf. pass, 
inf. (or part.), id. d and n. 

Nomen, denoting gens, 108. 

nomen, decl., 64. 

nomen est, w. pred. nom. or dat., 373. a; 
w. gen., id. n. 

Nominal adjs., 243-254. 

Nominative defined, 35. a ; nom. suffix:, 
338; neut. plur. nom. and ace. alike, 
38. b; in decl. II, 45. a; in decl. Ill, 
56, 58, 61, 66, 79; of neuters, i-stems, 
68. a; in u-stems, decl. IV, 88; in e- 
stems, decl. V, 95. 

Nominative, Syntax (see 338) : in pred- 
icate, 283, 284; verb-agreement with, 
316; as subject, 339; in exclamations, 

339. a (cf . 397. d) ; used for vocative, 

340. a ; w. opus in predicate, 411. 6 ; 
nom. of gerund supplied by inf., 502. n. 

non, derivation, 215. 1; compounds of, 
326. a, b; in answers, 336. a. 2. 

non dubito quin, 558. a ; non dubito w. inf., 
id. N. 2 ; w. indir. quest., id. H. 1 . 

non modo, after a negative, 327. 1. 

n5n modo . . . ne . . . quidem, 217. e. 

non nemo, n5n nullus, etc., 326. a. 

non quia (quod, quo, qu!n) etc., 540. n. 3 . 



INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS 



463 



n5n satis, 291. c. N. 2 . 

Nones (nonae), 631. c. 

nonne, in questions, 332. b. 

nos, decl., 143; for ego, 143. a. 

noster, for poss. gen., 302. a. 

nostri, as objective gen., 143. c, 295. b. 

nostrum, as partitive gen., 143. 6, 295. b; 
as objective gen., 295. b. N. K 

Noun and adj. forms of vb., 166. 

Noun stem, treated as root, 176. d. 

Nouns denned, 20. a; indecl., gend., 33; 
decl. of, 37-95 ; derivative forms of, 235- 
241; used as adjectives, 321. c; rule of 
agreement, 281 ; w. part, gen., 346. a. 1 ; 
w. obj. gen., 348; governing ace, 388. 
d. n. 2 ; noun as protasis, 521. a. 

Nouns of agency, 235 ; formation, 236. 

novendecim, 133. N. 2 . 

nox, decl., 72. 

ns, nf, gn, quantity of preceding vowel, 
10. d, 603. d. 

-ns, as adjective ending, 118 ; participles 
in, decl., 119, 121. 6.2; w. gen., 349. 6; 
w. ace, id. n. !, 2 . 

nt- (ont-, ent-), primary suffix, 234. II. 18. 

nt-, stems in, decl., 121. a. 4. 

nu-, primary suffix, 234. II. 6. 

nubes, decl., 72. 

nubo, w. dat., 368. 3. 

nullus, decl., 113; use, 314. a; cf. nemo. 

num, force of, 332. 6; in indirect ques- 
tions, id. n. 

Number, 35; nouns, defect, in, 99, 100, 
101, 103./, g; variable in, 107; pecul- 
iar uses, 101. n. l, 317. d. n. 2 ; number 
in vbs., 154. e; agreement in, 280; w. 
appositives, 282. a ; w. adjs., 286 and b ; 
w. vbs., 316, 317. d. 

Numeral advs., 138. 

Numerals, 132-139; cardinals and ordi- 
nals, 132, 133 ; distributives, 136; advs., 
138 ; others, 139. Position of numeral 
adjs., 598. b. 

numquis, 149. b, 310. a. 

nunc, compared w. iam, 322. b. 

nunc . . . nunc, 323./. 

nurus, gend., 90. 

-nus, adj. ending, 250. 

O for u after u or v, 6. a. b ; in decl. II, 

46. n.i. 
o- (a-), primary suffix, 234. I. 1. 
-o in nom., 61. 1; gend., 86; in fern. abl. 

of Greek adjs., 111. b. n. 
-o, -onis, noun ending, 236. c, 255. 
o si, w. subjv. of wish, 442. a and n. K 
o-stems, decl. II, 45; in adjs., 111-113; 

vbs. from o-stems, 259. 2. 
ob, use, 220. a, 221. 15; in comp., 267. a; 

in comp. w. vbs., w. dat., 370 ; to express 

cause, 404. b ; w. gerund, 506 and n. K 



obeo, constr., 370. 6. 

Obeying, vbs. of, 367; w. ace., id. a. 

Object cases, 274. a. 

Object clauses, infin., 452 ; subjv., 561-568. 

Object defined, 274; becomes subj. of 
pass., 275, 387. 6; ace. of direct w. 
dat. of indir. obj., 362; secondary 
obj., 394; obj. of anticipation, 576. 

Objective case expressed in Latin by gen., 
dat., ace, or abl., 274. a. 

Objective compounds, 265. 3. 

Objective genitive, mei etc., 143. c; de- 
fined, 348. n. ; w. nouns, 348; w. adjs., 
349. 

Obligation, unfulfilled, hortatory subjv., 
439. b. 

Oblique cases, 35. g ; origin of names of, 
338. 

obliviscor, w. ace or gen., 350. a, b. 

obvius (obviam), derivation, 216 and n. ; 
obviam as apparent adj., 321. d ; w. dat., 
370. c. 

Occasion, expressed by participle, 496. 

ocior, compar., 130. 

octodecim, 133. n. 2 . 

odi, conj., 205 ; w. meaning of present, 476. 

-oe, for -I in nom. plur., decl. II, 52. d. 

offendo, constr., 370. b. 

-oius, names in, 49. /. 

Old forms of pronouns: mis, tis, 143. a. 
n. ; med, ted, id. 

ollus (ille), 146. N. K 

-olus, diminutive ending, 243. 

Omission, of possessive, 302. c; of ante- 
cedent, 307. c. 

omnes; nos omnes (instead of omnes nos- 
trum), 346. e. 

5n-, stem-ending, 83. c. 

-5n, Greek ending, decl. II, 52. 

on-, stem-ending, 61. 1, 234. II. 13. 

-on, gen. plur., decl. II, 52. c. 

-on, nom. ending, 83. c, d. 

ont-, nom. -on, 83. d. 

Open syllables, 7. n. 2 . 

opera, w. gen., 405. b. 

operam d5, w. dat. of gerund etc., 505; 
w. subjv., 563. 

Operations of nature, 208. a. 

opinione, w. compar., 406. a. 

oplnor, position of, 599. c. 

oportet, 208. c; w. ace, 388. c; in apod., 
517. c; imperfect refers to present, 
plupf . to past, 522. a. n. 1 ; w. subjv. or 
inf., 565 and n. 3 . 

oportuit, w. pres. inf., 486. a; w. perf 
inf., id. b. 

oppidum, ad, 428. b. 

oppugno, w. ace, 370. 6. 

ops, defect., 103./. 1. 

Optative, derivation, and comparison 
w. subjv., 436. 



464 



INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS 



Optative forms in the vb., 168. e. n. 2 , 

169. d. 
Optative subjv. (wish), 441; w. utinam 

etc., 442; velim etc. w. subjv., equiv. 

to, id. b. 
optimates, 71. 5, 101. 3. 
opus, indecl., 103. a; opus and iisus, w. 

abl., 411; as pred. nom., id. b; w. 

participle, 497. a ; w. supine in -ii, 510. 
or-, stem-ending, decl. Ill, 63. Exc. 2. 
-or, noun ending, 238. a. 
-or or -os, nom. ending, 62. n. 2 ; gend., 85. 
Oratib obliqua, see Indirect Discourse. 
Order of words, 595-601. 
Ordinal Numbers, 132-135; decl., 134. e; 

use of et with, 135. a, b. 
oro, constr., 563. 
Orpheus, decl., 52. e. 
os-, stem of comparatives, 120. b. 
-os for -us, in nom. sing., decl. II, 46. N. 1 ; 
* as Greek ending, 52 ; as gen. ending in 

Greek nouns, decl. Ill, 81. 1. 
os, ossis, stem, 79. 

-os, nom. ending, 62. n. 2 ; gend., 85. 
os, oris, decl., 103. g. 2. 
-osus, -lens, -lentus, adj. endings, 245. 
ovat (defective), 206./. 
ovis, decl., 76. b. 1. 

P, parasitic after m (sumps!) , 15. 11. 

pacto, as abl. of manner, 412. b. 

paene, in apod., 517. b. n. 2 . 

paenitet, 208. b; constr., 354. b, c. 

Paeon, 609. d. 

palam, as apparent adj., 321. d; w. abl., 
432. c. 

Palatals, 4. 

paluster, decl., 115. a. 

Panthus, vocative of, 52. 6. 

par, decl., 119, 121. a. 3; w. gen., 385. c; 
w. dat. of gerund etc., 505. ftn. 2. 

Parallel verb forms, 189. 

Parataxis, 268. 

paratus, w. innn., 460. b. 

Pardoning, vbs. of, w. dat., 367. 

Parisyllabic nouns of decl. Ill, 65. a. 

pariter, use, 384. n. 2 . 

parte, locative use, without prep., 429. 1. 

partem, adverbial use, 397. a. 

particeps, decl., 121. a. 4, b. 

Participles, denned, 20. b. n. 1 ; com- 
parison of, 124. a; number of, 155. a; 
how used, 158. 

Participles, Syntax, 488-500; agree- 
ment, 286 and n. ; clause equivalent to 
part., 308. c ; parts, in -ns, used as adjs., 
w. gen., 349. b ; parts, in abl. absolute, 
419; meaning and form, 488; tenses, 
489-493; present in special use, 490; 
pres. pass, part., how supplied, 492; 
perf. act., how supplied, 493 ; parts, of 



deponent vbs., 190. a, b, 491, 493 ; adjec- 
tive use, 494 ; as nouns, id. a; predicate 
use, 495, 496 ; w. opus, 497. a ; perf. w. 
habeo, id. b ; present w. facio, id. c; fut- 
ure part., 498; w. past tenses of esse, 
498. b ; poetic and late use, 499 ; gerund- 
ive, use as part, or adj., 500; part, as 
protasis, 521. a. 

Particles defined, 23 ; forms and classifi- 
cation, 213; note on formation, 215, 
216; interrogative, 217. d; negative, 
id. e, 325 ; in comps., 267. Syntax, 321- 
336 ; use of interrogative particles, 332. 
a-c; conditional particles, 512. a and 
N., 525; particles of comparison, 524. 

Particular conditions denned, 513. 

partior, conj., 190. 

Partitive apposition, 282. a. 

Partitive genitive, 346 ; nostrum etc., 143. 
b ; neut. adjs. with, 346. 3 and n. 1 . 

Partitive numerals, 139. c. 

Parts of Speech, 20. 

partus, decl., 92. c. 

parum, compar., 218. a; meaning, 291. c. 

N. 2 . 

parvi, gen. of value, 417. 

parvus, compar., 129. 

Passive voice, 154. a; origin, 163. ftn. 2, 
208. d. n. ; signification, 156 ; reflexive 
meaning, id. a ; deponents, 156. b ; com- 
pleted tenses, how formed, 179. g; 
passive used impersonally, 203. a, 208. 
d, 372 (cf. 566, 582. a). 

pater familias, decl., 43. b. 

patiens, compar., 124. a. 

patior, constr., 563. c. 

Patrials in -as, decl., 71. 5, 121. a. 4. 

Patronymics (-ades, -ides, -eus, etc.), 244. 

pauper, decl., 121. a. 4. 

pax, decl., 103. g. 2. 

pecu, gend., 91; decl., 105./. 

pecuniae, gen., w. vbs. of accusing, 352. 
a and n. 

pedester, decl., 115. a. 

pelagus (plur. pelage), gend. of, 48. a. 

pelvis, decl., 76. b. 1. 

Penalty, gen. of, 352 and n. ; abl. of, 
353. 2. 

Penates,' decl., 71. 5 (cf. 101. 3). 

penes, following noun, 435. 

Pentameter verse, 616. 

Penult, defined, 12. 

penus, gend., 90. Exc. ; decl., 105. c. 

per, prep., 220. a; use, 221. 16; w. ace. 
of agent, 405. b. Adverbial prefix, w. 
adjs., 267. d. 1 (cf . 291. c. N. !) ; w. vbs., 
267. d. N. 

Perceiving, vbs. of, constr., 459. 

perendie (loc), 98. b, 215. 5. 

Perfect participle, two uses, 158. c. 1, 2; 
of deponents, 190. &; used as noun, 



INDEX OE WORDS AND SUBJECTS 



465 



retains adv., 321. b; dat. of agent w., 
375 ; abl. w. opus and usus, 411. a, 497. a. 

Perfect Tense distinguished from im- 
perf., 161, 471 ; perf . def. and perf. hist., 
161, 473; personal endings, 163. a, 169. 
a ; origin of i and s in, 163. ftn. 3 ; stem, 
how formed, 177, 179 ; perf. subjv., suf- 
fixes of, 169. d; of conj. I, 179. a. 2; 
contracted perf., 181. a, b; perf. subjv. 
in -sim, 183. 3; irreg. forms of conj. I, 
209. a; of conj. II, 210. c; various, of 
conj. Ill, 211; of conj. IV, 212. 

•Perfect Tense, Syntax. Perf. Ind., 
use, 473; in general conditions, id. a, 
518. b ; gnomic perf., 475 ; in fut. condi- 
tions, 516. e. Perf. Subjv., hortatory, 
439 and n. 1 ; optative, 441. a ; potential, 
446 ; in prohibitions, 450 (3) ; in fut. con- 
ditions, 516. c. Perf. Inf., in exclama- 
tions, 462 and n. 2 ; w. debe5 etc., 486. b ; 
w. nolo or volo in prohibition, id. c ; pass. 
w. volo etc., id. d; instead of the pres. 
inf., id. e ; w. vbs. of feeling etc., id./; 
in ind. disc, 584. a and n. Sequence of 
Tenses, perf. ind., 485. a; perf. subjv., 
id. 6, c, 585. a. 

Pericles, decl., 82. 

Period, 600, 601. 

Periphrastic conjugations, 158. b. N., d. 
n. ; paradigms, 195, 196 ; periphrastic 
forms in conjugation, 193; use in con- 
trary to fact apodosis, 517. d ; in ind. 
questions, 575. a. 

Permission, vbs. of, constr., 563. c. 

permuto, w. abl., 417. b. 

pernox, decl., 122. c. 

perpes, decl., 121. a. 3. 

Person, 154. d; agreement, 280; of vbs., 
316 and a ; w. different persons, 317. a ; 
order of the three persons, id. 

Personal constr. of passive w. infinitive, 
582. 

Personal endings, 163 and ftn. 1. 

Personal pronouns, 142, 143, 294, 295 ; re- 
duplicated forms, 143. e ; Syntax, 295 ; 
omitted, id. a, 318. a ; gen. plur., 295. b ; 
3d pers., id. c; position of personal and 
demonstrative, 599./. 

persuadeo, constr., 563. 

Persuading, vbs. of, w. dat., 367. 

pertaesum est, 354. b. 

pes, comps. of, decl., 121. b. 1. 

Pet names, gend., 30. a. n. 2 . 

peto w. ab, 396. a-, w. subjv., 563. 

ph only in Greek words, 4. 1. ftn. 2; 
sound of, 8. 

Phalaecian verse, 625. 11. 

Pherecratic verse, 623. 2, 624, 625. 2, 4, 12. 

Phonetic variations, 14-19; phonetic 
decay, id. ; vowels, 15, 17 ; consonants, 
15. 4-17. 



Phrase, defined, 277. 

Phrases, neut., 33; phrases and clauses 
grown into advs., 216; adverbial 
phrases, 277; phrases limited by gen., 
343. c; phrase or clause in abl. abs., 
419. b. 

Physical qualities, abl., 415. a. 

piger, decl., 112. a. 

piget, constr., 354. b. 

Pity, vbs. of, constr., 354. a. 

pius, compar., 128. n., 131. a. 

pix, decl., 103. g. 2. 

Place, advs. of, 217. a; relations of, re- 
quire prep., 381. a, 426; place of birth, 
abl., 403. a. n. 2 ; place where, 426. 3, 
427. 3 ; place to or from which, 426. 1, 2 ; 
prep., when omitted, 426. ftn., 427. 1, 2. 
a, 429. a ; locative case, 427. 3. a, 428. k. 

Placing, vbs. of, constr., 430. 

Plants, gend. of names of, 32 and 6; 
decl. of plant names in -us, 105. a. 

plaudo, w. dat., 368. 3. 

Plautus, absque me etc., 517./; use of quom 
w. indie, 546. n. 4 , 549. n. 3 ; prosodial 
forms, 620. a, 628. 6, 629. 

Pleasing, vbs. of, constr., 367. 

plebes, decl., 98. d. 

Plenty, vbs. of, constr., 356, 409. a. 

plenus, constr., 409. n. 

-plex, numeral adjs. in, 139. 

pluit (impers.), 208. a; used personally, 
id. n. 

Pluperfect Indicative, suffixes of, 169. b ; 
use of, 477; epistolary, 479; pluperf. 
indie, in conditions cont. to fact, 517. b ; 
in general conditions, 518. 6. Pluperf. 
Subjv., suffixes of, 169. e; hortatory, 
439. 6; optative, 441; potential, 446; in 
conditions, 517 (sequence, 485. g). 

Plural, wanting in decl. V, 98. a; used 
in sense different from sing., 100. a-c, 
107 ; plur. alone used, 101. n. 1 ; plur. ace. 
used as advs., 215. 3 ; neut. plur. of adjs., 
289. b. 

Pluralia tantum, 101. 

pluris, gen. of value, 417 and c. 

plus, decl., 120 and c; compar., 129; with- 
out quam, 407. c. 

poema, decl., 60. a. 

poenitet, see paenitet. 

pondo, defect., 103. b. 5. 

pono, w. abl., 430. 

por-, prefix, 267. b. 

porticus, gend., 90. Exc. 

portus, decl., 92. c. 

Position, expressed by ab, ex, 429. 6. 

Position in Prosody, 11. b, 603. /; does not 
affect final vowel, 603./. n. 1 . 

posse, as fut. inf., 584. b. 

Possession, how expressed, 302. a; dat 
of, 373 ; compared w. gen., id. n. 



466 



INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS 



Possessive compounds, 265. a. 

Possessive genitive, 343 and a-c ; dat. of 
reference used instead, 377. 

Possessive pronouns, 145; agreement, 
302 ; instead of gen., id. a ; special mean- 
ings, id. b ; omission, id. c ; used sub- 
stantively, id. d; w. gen. in app., id. e; 
used for gen., 343. a; for obj. gen., 
348. a. 

Possibility, vbs. of, in apodosis, 517. c. 

possum, in apodosis, 517. c. 

post, adverbial use of, 433. 1 ; with quam, 
434. 

post, vbs. comp. w., with dat., 370. 

postera, defect., 111. 6; compar., 130. 6; 
poster!, id. 

posterior, 130. b. 

Postpositive conjunctions, 324. j. 

postquam (posteaquam), in temporal 
clauses, 543. 

postremd, in enumerations, 322. d. N. 

postridie, w. gen., 359. b; w. ace, 432. a; 
w. quam, 434. 

postulo ab, 396. a ; postulo ut, 563. 

Potential mood, how expressed in Latin, 
157. b. 

Potential subjunctive, 445-447. 

potior (adj.), compar., 130. 

potior (verb), w. gen., 357. a, 410. a; w. 
abl., 410; w. ace, id. n. 1 ; gerundive, 
503. n. 2. 

potis, pote, 122. 6. 

potius, compar., 218. a. 

potui, w. pres. infin., 486. a. 

Practice, vbs. of, 263. b. 

prae, 220. b ; use, 221. 17 ; in comp., 291. c. 
N. 1 ; in comps., w. dat., 370 ; in compar., 
w. quam, 434; quantity of, in comps., 
603. 6. Exc. 

praecedo, constr., 370. 

praeceps, decl., 119, 121. a. 3. 

praecipio, constr., 563. 

Praenomen, 108 ; abbreviations, id. c. 

praepes, decl., 121. b. 1. 

praestolor, constr., 367. b. 

praesum, w. dat. of gerund etc., 505. 

praeter, use, 220. a, 221. 18. 

praeterit, w. ace, 388. c. 

preci, defect., 103./. 2. 

precor, constr., 563. 

Predicate, defined, 270; modified, 276; 
pred. noun or adj., 272, 283; case, 284; 
pred. noun referring to two or more 
sing, nouns, id. a; adjective, 285. 2, 

286. a; agreement in, 287. 1-3; in rel. 
clause, 306; pred. adj. in neut. plur., 

287. 4. a; pred. adj. in relative clause, 
307./; pred. gen., 343. 6, c; pred. ace, 
392, 393; adj. as pred. ace, id. n. ; pred. 
ace becomes pred. nom. in the pass., 
id. a ; predicate use of participles, 496, 



Predicate noun or adj. after inf., 452. n. 2 , 
455. a and n., 458. 581. N. 3. 

Prepositions, assimilation of, 16 ; defined, 
20./; derivation of, 219; list of preps, 
w. ace, 220. a; w. abl., id. b ; w. either, 
id. c ; idiomatic uses, 221 ; comp. w. vbs. 
and adjs., 267. a, c; noun w. prep., in- 
stead of obj. gen., 348. c; in comp. w. 
vbs., w. dat., 370, 381; ace in comp., 
395; w. abl. of separation, 401; prep, 
omitted in relations of place, 427. 1, 2, 
429 and a; use of, 220, 221, 429. b, 430, 
432-435 ; preps, following the noun, 435; 
usual position of, 599. d. (See 338.) 

Present participle, decl., 119; use, 158. a. 

Present stem, how formed, 168, 174 ; from 
root, 176. 

Present subjunctive in -im, 183. 2. 

Present tense, w. iam diu etc., 466; cona- 
tive, 467 ; for fut., 468 ; historical, 469 ; 
annalistic, id. a ; w. dum, 556 ; in quo- 
tations, 465. a ; sequence, 483, 485. e, i ; 
pres. inf. w. potui etc., 486. a ; participle, 
489, 490, 492, 494, 496. Pres. inf. in ind. 
disc, referring to past time, 584. a and n. 

Preteritive verbs, 205. n. 2 , 476. 

Preventing, vbs. of, constr., 364. n. 2 . 

Price, abl. or gen., 416. 

pridie, form, 98. b ; w. gen., 359. b ; w. ace, 
432. a ; w. quam, 434. 

Primary suffixes, defined, 233. 

Primary tenses, 482. 1, 483. 

primipilaris, decl., 76. a. 2. 

Primitive verbs, 256. 

primo, primum, meanings, 322. d and N. 

primoris, defect., 122. c. 

primus, form, 130. ftn. 2. 

princeps, decl., 121. a. 4. 

Principal parts of verb, 172, 173. 

prior, compar., 130. a. 

prius, w. quam, 434; priusquam in tem- 
poral clause, 550, 551; in ind. disc, 
585. b. n. 

Privation expressed by abl., 400. 

pr5, 220. 6; use, 221. 19; in comps., w. 
dat., 370; to express for, 379. n. 

probo, w. dat., 368, 375. b. N. 

Proceleusmatic, 609. n. 

procerus, decl., 111. a. n. 

procul, w. abl., 432. c. 

prohibeo, constr. of, 364. n. 2 . 

Prohibitions, 450; in ind. disc, 588. n. 2 . 

Promising etc., vbs. of, 580. c. 

Pronominal roots, 228, 232; as primary 
suffixes, id. 

Pronouns defined, 20. c; decl. of, 140- 
151 ; personal, 142, 143 ; reflexive, 144 ; 
gen., how used, 143. c, 302. a; demon- 
strative, 146; relative, 147; interrog. 
and indef., 148-151 ; pron. contained in 
verb ending, J63. ftn. 1, 271. a. 






INDEX OF WOKDS AND SUBJECTS 



467 



Pronouns, Syntax, 294-315; Personal, 
295; Demonstrative, 296-298; idem, 
298. a, b; ipse, id. c-f; Reflexive, 299; 
Possessive, 302; Relative, 303-308 ; In- 
definite, 309-314. Prons. w. part, gen., 
346. a. 1. Relative in protasis, 519. 
Position of prons., 598. e, I. 

Pronunciation, Roman method, 8; Eng- 
lish method, 8. n. 

pronuntio, constr., 563. 

prope, conipar., 130; use, 220. a; in apod., 
517. 6. N. 2. 

prope est ut, 568. 

Proper names, 108; plur., 99. 1, 101. 1. 

Proper nouns, 20. a. 

properus, decl., 111. a. n. 

propinquus, w. gen., 385. c. 

propior (propius), compar., 130. a; constr., 
432. a and n. 

Proportional numerals, 139. a. 

Propriety, vbs. of, in apod., 517. c, 522. a. 

proprius, w. gen., 385. c. 

propter, use, 220. a, 221. 20 ; position, 435 ; 
denoting motive, 404. b. 

Prosody, 602; rules and definitions, 
603-606 ; early peculiarities, 629. 

prosper (-us), decl., 111. a. 

prospicio, w. dat. or ace, 367. c. 

Protasis (see Conditional Sentences), 512 
ff. ; loose use of tenses in Eng., 514. C. 
n. ; relative in prot., 519 ; temporal par- 
ticles in, 542 ; antequam, priusquam, in, 
551. c. N. 2 ; prot. in ind. disc, 589. 1. 

Protecting, vbs. of, constr., 364. N. 2 . 

Protraction of long syllables, 608. c. 

provided, w. dat. or ace, 367. c. 

Proviso, subjv. used in, 528. a and b ; in- 
troduced by modo etc., 528; hortatory 
subjv. expressing, id. a; subjv. w. ut 
(or ne) , id. b ; characteristic clause ex- 
pressing, 535. d. 

proxime, constr., 432. a. 

proximus, constr., 432. a. 

-pse, -pte (enclitic), 143. d. n., 145. a, 146. 

N. 7, 8. 

pubes, decl., 105. e, 121. d. 

pudet, 208. 6; constr., 354. b, c, and N. 

puer, decl. 47 (cf. 50. a). 

pulcher, decl., 112. a. 

Punishment, abl. of, 353. 1. 

puppis, decl., 75. b, 76. b. 1. 

Purpose, dat. of, 382; infin. of, 460; 
expressed by gerundive after certain 
vbs., 500. 4; by gerund or gerundive 
as predicate gen., 504. a. n. *; ways 
of expressing, 533. Clauses of, 279. d ; 
defined and classified, 529 ff . ; use of 
quo in, 531. a ; main clause omitted, 532 ; 
nedum, id., n. \ 2 . Substantive clauses 
of, used after certain vbs., 563; of 
wishing, id. b ; of permitting, id. c ; of 



determining, id. d; of caution etc., id. 

e ; of fearing, 564. 
Purpose or end, dat. of, 382. 
puter, decl., 115. a. 

qua . . . qua, 323. /. 

quadrupes, decl., 121. b. 1. 

quae res (or id quod), 307. d. 

quaero, constr. (ex or de), 396. a ; w. subjv., 
563. 

quaeso, conj., 206. e. 

qualis, 151. i. 

Qualities (abstract), gend., 32. 

Qualities of an object compared, 292. 

Quality, adjs. of, 251 ; gen. of, 345, 415. a ; 
to denote indef . value, 417 and a ; abl. 
of, 415 (cf. 345. n.). 

quam, derivation of, 215. 2; with super- 
lative, 291. c ; w. compar. and positive 
or w. two positives, 292. a. n. ; cor- 
relative w. tarn, 323. g; w. compar., 
407. a, e ; after alius, id. a ; w. compar. 
of advs., 434; w. ante, post, id.; w. 
subjv. after compar., 535. c; followed 
by result clause, 571. a; in indirect 
questions, 575. d; in ind. disc, 581. 
n. 2 , 583. c. 

quam diu, 555. N. 2 . 

quam ob causam, 398. 

quam qui, quam ut, w. subjv., 535. c. 

quam si, 524. 

quamquam, use, 527. d; introducing a 
proposition = and yet, id. n. ; w. 
subjv., id. e. 

quamvis, use, 527. a; subjv. or. ind. w., 
440. n., 527. a, e. 

quando (interrog.), derivation and mean- 
ing, 215. 6, 539 ; causal (since) , 540. a and 
n. ; indef., id. ; temporal, 542. 

quanti, gen. of price, 417. 

Quantity, gen. of adjs. of, denoting price, 
417. 

Quantity in Prosody, marks of, 10. e; 
nature of, 602; general rules of, 9-11, 
603; final syllables, 604; perf. and 
perf. parts., 605; derivatives, 606. 

quantd, w. tanto, 414. a. 

quantum (with minim), in indirect ques- 
tions, 575. d. 

quantus, 151. i. 

quasi, with primary tenses, 524. n. 2 . 

quasso (intensive), 263. 2. 

-que (enclitic), added to indefinites, 151. 
g\ as conj., use, 323. c. 3, 324. a; quan- 
tity, 604. a. 1. 

queo (defective), 206. d. 

ques, old nom. plur., 150. c. 

Questions, direct, in indie, 157. a, 330- 
335; indirect, 330. 2, 331. n. ; double 
questions, 334; question and answer, 
336 ; result clause in exclam. questions, 



468 



INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS 



462. a; mood in indir. question, 574; 

in ind. disc, 586 ; in informal ind. disc, 

592. 1. 
qui (adverbial), 150. b. 
qui (relative), decl., 147; (interrog. and 

indef.), 148 and 6; in compounds, 151; 

qui=ut is, w. subjv., 531. 2. n., 537. 2; 

qui causal and concessive, 535. e. 
quia, derivation etc., 539; use, 540. n. 1 ; 

causal, id. ; w. vbs. of feeling, 572. b ; 

in intermediate clauses, 592. 3. 
quicum, 150. b. 
quicumque, decl., 151. a. 
quid, in exclamations, 397. d. N. K 
quidam, decl., 151. c; meaning of, 310; 

w. ex, 346. c. 
quidem, use, 322. e ; w. is or idem, 298. a ; 

position of, 599. b, 
quilibet, decl., 151. c; use, 312. 
quin, w. indie equiv. to command, 449. 6 ; 

in result clause (=qui non), 558, 559; 

w. vbs. of hindering, 558; non dubito 

quin, 558. a. 
Quinary or hemiolic measures, 609. d. 
quinquatrus, gender, 90; plural only, 

101. 2. 
quippe, w. relative clause, 535. e. N. 1 ; w. 

cum, 549. n. K 
Quirites, 101. 3. 
quis, decl., 148, 149; distinguished from 

qui in use, id. b and N. ; compounds of 

(aliquis etc), 151. d-f, 310 and 6; quis 

w. si, num, ne, 310. a ; indef. use of, 310. 
quis est qui, 535. a. 
quis, dat. or abl. plur., 150. c. 
quisnam, 148. e. 

quispiam, 151. d; use of, 310 and b. 
quisquam, decl., 151. d; use, 311, 312. 
quisque, form and decl., 151. g\ use in 

general assertions, 313; in dependent 

clause, id. a ; w. superlative, id. b ; w. 

plur. vb., 317. e. 
quisquis, decl., 151. 6. 
quivis, decl., 151. c; use, 312. 
quo-, stems in, 46. N. 2 . 
quo, approaching abl. of cause, 414. a. n. 
qu5 in final clauses (=ut e5) w. subjv., 

531. a ; non quo, 540. N. 3 . 
quo . . . eo, 414. a; to denote deg. of 

difference, id. 
quoad (intention etc.), 553; (fact), 554; 

(as long as), 555. 
quod for id quod/ 307. d. N. 
quod (conj.), 540. n. 1 ; mood with, 540; 

in ind. disc, id. b ; subst. clause with, 

572; as ace of specification, id. a; w. 

vbs. of feeling, id. b ; quod in interme- 
diate clauses, 592. 3 and N. 
quod sciam (proviso), 535. d. 
quod si, use, 324. d, 397. a. 
quom (see cum), 6. b t 539* N. 



quominus (=ut eo minus), w. vbs. of hin- 
dering, 558. b. 
quoniam, origin, 539; meaning and use, 

540. 1. n. 1 and a. 

quoque, use, 322. a ; position, 599. b. 
quot, indeclinable, 122. b ; correl., 152. 
Quotation, forms of, w. apud and in, 

428. d. N. 2 ; direct and indir., 578. 
quotus quisque, 313. b. N. 2 . 
quu- (cu-), 6. b. 
quum (conj.), 6. b (see cum). 

R substituted for s between two vowels? 

15. 4 and n.; r- in adj. stems, 117. a; 

rr- in noun stems, 62. n. K 
radix, decl., 57. 

rastrum, plur. in -a and -i, 106. 6. 
ratiSne, as abl. of manner, 412. b. 
ratus, as pres. part., 491. 
ravis, decl., 75. a. 2. 
re- or red- (prefix), 267. b. 
reapse, 146. n. 7 . 

Receiving, vbs. of, w. gerundive, 500. 4. 
Reciprocal (each other), how expressed, 

145. c, 301./. 
recordor, w. ace, 350. d ; w. gen., id. N. ; 

w. de, id. n. 
rectum est ut, 568. 
red-, see re-. 
Reduplication, 177. c, 231. c; list of vbs., 

211. b ; lost in fidi etc, id. /. ftn. 3 ; rule 

for quantity, 605. a. 
Reference, object of, 349. 
Reference, pronouns of, 297./; commonly 

omitted, id. n ; dative of, 376 ; gen. of 

specification, 349. d. 
refert, w. gen. or possessive adj., 355 and 

a; other constr., id. b. 
Reflexive pronouns, 144 ; Syntax of, 298. 

c. n. 2 , 299-301 ; of 1st and 2d persons, 

299. a. 
Reflexive verbs (deponent or passive), 

190. e, 208. d. n. ; use of passive, 156. a ; 

w. object ace, 397. c. 
Refusing, vbs. of, w. quominus, 558. 6. 
Regular verbs, 171-189. 
Relationship, nouns of, 244. 
Relative adverbs, used correlatively, 152 ; 

demon, for rel., 308. b ; used to connect 

independent sentences, id./; referring 

to loe, id. g\ = pronoun w. prep., 321. 

a ; used in relative clauses of purpose, 

531.2; result, 537. 2. 
Relative clauses, defined, 279. a ; w. rel. 

advs., 308. i; conditional, 519; final, 

531, 533; characteristic, 535; consecu- 
tive, 537; causal, §40. c; temporal, 

541, 542; rel. clauses in ind. disc, 591; 
position of rel. clause, 599. e. 

Relative pronouns, decl., 147 ; forms, how 
distinguished from interrogative and 



INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS 



469 



indef., 148. 6 and n. ; comps. of, 151, 
310 and a, b. Syntax, 303-308; rules 
of agreement, 305, 306 ; w. two antece- 
dents, 305. a ; rel. in agreement w. app. 
etc., 306; use of the antecedent, 307; 
special uses of rel., 308; never omitted 
in Lat., id. a; relatives as connectives, 
id./; pers. of vb. agreeing w., 316. a; 
abl. of rel. after compar., 407. a. n. 3 ; 
position, 599. e. 

relinquitur ut, 568. 

reliquum est ut, 568. 

reliquus, use, 293 ; reliqul, use, 315. 

-rem, verb ending, 168./. 

Remembering, vbs. of, w. ace. or gen., 
350; w. inf., 456. 

Reminding, vbs. of, constr., 351. 

reminiscor, w. ace. or gen., 350. c. 

Removing, vbs. of, w. abl., 401. 

Repeated action as general condition, 
518. c. 

repetundarum, 352. a. 

Repraesentdtid, 469. n. ; in ind. disc, 
585. b and n. 

requies, decl., 98. cZ, 105. e. 

res, decl., 96. 

Resisting, vbs. of, constr., 367, 558. 

Resolution of syllables in Prosody, 610. 

Resolving, vbs. of, constr. (subjv. or inf.), 
563. d. 

restat, w. ut, 569. 2. 

restis, decl., 75. b. 

Restriction in subjunctive clause, 535. d. 

Result, clauses of, 279. e, 534 ; sequence of 
tenses in, 485. c; inf. of, 461. a. Sub- 
junctive w. relatives or ut, 537 ; nega- 
tive result w. ut non etc., id. a, 538; 
result clause equivalent to proviso, 537. 
b; w. quin, 558; w. quominus, id. b. 
Subst. clauses of result after facio etc., 
568; as subject, 569; in app. w. noun, 
570; as pred. nom., 571; after quam, 
id. a; tantum abest ut, id. 6; thought 
as result, id. c. 

Result, nouns denoting, 239. 

rete, decl., 76. a. 3. 

rex, decl., 57. 

Rhetorical questions in ind. disc, 586. 

Rhotacism, 15. 4. 

Rhythm, development of, 607 ; nature of, 
608. 

Rhythmical reading, 612. d. N. 

ri-, adj. stems in, 115. a. 

ritu, abl. of manner, 412. b. . 

rivalis, decl., 76. b. 2. 

Rivers, gender of names of, 31. 1 and a. 

to- (ra-), primary suffix, 234. II. 9. 

ro-stems, decl. II, 45. 6; adj. stems, 111, 
112. 

rogo, constr. of, 396 and b. N., c. N. 2 ; w. 
subjv., 563. 



Roman method of pronunciation, 8. 
Root, denned, 25, 228; consciousness of 

roots lost in Lat., 25. N. ; of vbs., 117. 

1 ; noun stem treated as root, 176. d ; 

roots ending in vowel, id. e ; root used 

as stem, id. d. n. 1 and e, 231. 
ros, decl., 103. g. 2. 
rr-, as stem ending, 62. n. K 
rt-, stems in, decl., 121. a. 4. 
ruber, decl., 112. a. 
run, locative, 80, 427. 3. 
riis, decl., 103. g. 1 ; constr., 427. 1, 2, 3. 

S changed to r, 15. 4 and n., 62. n. 2 ; sub- 
stituted for d or t, 15. 5 ; s- as stem end- 
ing, 79. e ; of adjs., 119. n. ; of compars., 
120. b ; of perf . stem, 177. b ; list of vbs. 
of conj. Ill, w. perf. in s, 211. a; s sup- 
pressed in verb forms, 181. b. N. 2 ; in 
early Lat., 629. a. 

-s as sign of nom., 45, 46, 56, 95, 117. a, 
338 ; -s omitted in inscriptions, 46. N. 1 ; 
-s, noun ending, decl. Ill, gend., 86. 

sacer, decl., 112. a; comp., 131. a. 

saepe, compar., 218. a. 

sal, decl., 103. g. 2. 

Salamis, decl., 83. a. 

saluber, decl., 115. a. 

salutem, 397. d. N. 2 . 

salve, defect., 206. g. 

sane quam, 575. d. 

Sanskrit forms, see 25. ftn. 2, 170. 6. n. 

sapiens, decl., 76. b. 2. 

Sapphic verse, 625. 7, 8. 

satias, decl., 98. d. 

satis, compar., 218. a; compounds of, w. 
dat., 368. 2; non satis, 291. c. N. 2 ; 
satis est (satis habeo), w. perf. infin., 
486./. 

satur, genitive of, 50. b; decl., 111. a; 
compar., 131. b. 

Saturnian verse, 628. d. 

Saying, vbs. of, constr., 459 ; in passive, 
582. 

sc preceding stem-vowel of verb, 176. b. 1. 

scaber, decl., 112. a. 

Scanning, 612. d, 609. e. N. 

scilicet, derivation, 216. n. 

scin, contracted form for scisne, 13. n. 

scio, imperative of, 449. a. 

Scipiades, 44. b. N. 

scisco, constr., 563. 

scito, scitote, imv. forms, 182. a, 449. a. 

-sco (inceptive), vbs. ending in, 263. 1. 

se- or sed-, inseparable prefix, 267. b. 

se", reflexive, decl., 144. 6; use, 299-301; 
inter se, 145. c. 

Second Conjugation, prin. parts, 173; 
pres. stem, how formed, 176. a ; forma- 
tion of, 179. 6; paradigm, 185; vbs. o^ 
210 ; from noun stems, 260. 



470 



INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS 



Second Declension, nouns, 45-47 ; accent 
of gen. and voc. of nouns in -ius, 12. 
Exc. 2. 

Secondary object, 394. 

Secondary suffixes, defined, 232. 

Secondary tenses, 482. 2 ; rule for use of, 
483; perf. def. more commonly sec- 
ondary, 485. a; perf. subjv. in clauses 
of result used after, id. c ; hist. pres. , 
id. e; imperf. and pluperf. subjv., id. 
g, h ; present used as if secondary, by 
synesis, id. i. 

secundum, prep., 220. a; use, 221. 21. 

secundus, derivation, 132. ftn. 

securis, decl., 75. 6, 76. a. 1. 

secus (adv.), compar., 218. a. 

secus, indecl. noun, 103. a ; use, 397. a. 

seciitus (as pres. part.), 491. 

sed-, see se-. 

sed compared with verum etc., 324. d. 

sedes, decl., 78. 1. 

sedile, decl., 69. 

Selling, vbs. of, 417. c. 

sementis, decl., 75. 6, 76. b. 1. 

Semi-deponents, 192. 

semineci, defect., 122. c. 

Semi-vowels, i and v (u), 5. 

senati, senatuos, forms of gen. in decl. 
IV, 92. a, e. 

senex, decl., 79 and c; adj. masc, 122. d; 
comparison, 131. c. 

Sentence, development, 268 ; defined, 269 ; 
simple or compound, 278; incomplete, 
318, 319. 

Separation, dat. of, after comps. of ab, 
de, ex, and a few of ad, 381 ; abl. of, 400 ; 
gen. for abl., 356. n., 357. b. 3. 

Sequence of tenses, 482-485 ; in ind. disc. , 
585; in conditional sentences in ind. 
disc, 589. b. 

sequester, decl., 105. b. 

sequitur, w. ut, 569. 2. 

sequor, conj., 190. 

sera nocte, 293. N. 

serigs, decl., 98. a. 

Service, adjs. of, w. dat., 384. 

Service, dat. of, 382. n. I. 

Serving, vbs. of, w. dat., 367. 

servus (servos), decl., 46. 

sestertium, sestertius, 632-634 ; how writ- 
ten in cipher, 635. 

seu (sive), 324./, 525. c. 

Sharing, adjs. of, w. gen., 349. a. 

Should (auxiliary) , how expressed in Lat., 
157. b. ftn. 2. 

Showing, vbs. of, w. two aces., 393. 

si, 511 ; w. subjv. of wish, 442. a and N. 1 ; 
si and its compounds, use, 512. a. n., 
525 ; si non distinguished from nisi, id. 
a. 1; miror si, 572. b. N. ; si — whether, 
576. a. 



Sibilants, 4. 

sic, correl., w. ut, 323. g, 537. 2. n. 2 : w. 

si, 512. b. 
siem (sim), 170. b. n. 
Significant endings, 235-253. 
Signs of mood and tense, 169. ftn. 
silenti5, without preposition, 412. b. 
-silis, adj. ending, 252. 
Silvester, decl., 115. a. 
-sim, old form of perf. subjv., 183. 3. 
similis, comparison, 126; w. gen. and 

dat., 385. c. 2. 
similiter, use, 384. n. 2 . 
Simois, decl., 82. i 

Simple sentences, 278. 1. 
simul, simul atque (ac) , 543. 
simul . . . simul, 323./. 
simul w. abl., 432. c. 
sin, 512. a. n. 

Singular, nouns defect, in, 103./. 
Singuldria tantum, 99. 
sinister, decl., 112. a. 
sino, constr., 563. c. 
-sio, noun ending, 238. b. 
-sis-, dropped in perf., 181. b. N. 2 . 
sitis, decl., 67 (cf. 75. a. 2). 
sive (seu) . . . sive, use, 324./, 525. c. 
Smell, vbs. of, w. ace, 390. a. 
-so, old form of fut. perfect, 183. 3. 
-so, vbs. in, 263. 2. 
socrus, gend., 90. Exc. 
sodes (si audes), 13. n., 192. a. 
sol, decl., 103. g. 2. 
soleo, semi-dep., 192. 
solito, w. compars., 406. a. 
solitus, as pres. part., 491. 
solus, decl., 113; w. relative clause of 

characteristic, 535. b. 
Sonants, 3. 

s5ns, as participle of esse, 170. b. 
-sor, see -tor. 
Soracte, decl., 76. b. n. 2 . 
sordem, defect., 103./ 3. 
-soria, noun ending, 254. 4 ; -solium, noun 

ending, 254. 5; -sorius, adj. ending, 

250. a. 
Sospita, fern. adj. form, 121. e. 
Sounds, see Pronunciation. 
Source, expressed by abl., 403. 
Space, extent of, expressed by ace, 425. 
Sparing, vbs. of, with dat., 367. 
spe, w. compars., 406. a. 
Special verb forms, 181, 182. 
species, decl., 98. a. 
Specification, gen. of, w. adjs., 349. d\ 

ace. of, 397. b and n. ; abl. of, 418. 
specus, gend., 90. Exc. 
Spelling, variations of, 6. 
spes, 98. a and ftn. 
Spirants, 4. 
Spondaic verse, 615. b, 



INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS 



471 



Spondee, 609. b. 3. 

spontis, -e, defect., 103. c. 2. 
Stanza or Strophe, 614. 

statuo, w. vbs. of placing, 430 ; w. inf. or 
subjv., 563. d. 

Statutes, fut. imv. in, 449. 2. 

ste for iste etc., 146. n. 6 . 

Stella, decl., 41. 

Stem building, 25. N. 

Stems, defined, 24; classified, 229; how 
formed from root, 26, 230-232; how 
found in nouns, 37. a; a-stems, decl. 
I, 40; adjs., 110; o-stems, decl. II, 45; 
adjs. 110; in decl. Ill, mute stems, 56- 
60; liquid and nasal stems, 61-64; 
i-stems, 65-69; mixed i-stems, 70-72; 
u-stems, decl. IV, 88, 89; in tu-, 94; 
of vb., 165. 1; present, perfect, and 
supine, 164. Pres. stem, how formed, 
175, 176 ; perf . stem, 177 ; supine stem, 
178. Tenses arranged by stems, synop- 
sis, 180. 

sto, w. abl., 431. 

strigilis, decl., 76. 6. 1. 

strix, decl., 71. 6. 

Structure of Latin sentences, 600, 601. 

strues, decl., 78. 2. 

studeo, w. dat., 368. 3. 

suadeo, w. dat., 367. 

sub-, in comp., w. adjs., 267. d.l, 291. c. 
N. 2 ; w. vbs., 267. a and d. N. 

sub, use, 220. c, 221. 22; in comps., w. 
dat., 370; of time, 424. e. 

subeo, w. ace, 370. b. 

Subject, 268 ; defined, 270 ; how expressed, 
271 and a; modified, 276; vb. agrees 
w., 316 ; two or more subjs., 317 ; subj. 
omitted, 318; accusative, 459; in ind. 
disc, 580; position of subject, 596. 

Subject clauses (inf.), 452. 1; (subjv.), 
566,, 567, 569, 571. b. 

Subjective gen., defined, 343. n. 1 ; use, 
343. 

Subjunctive mood, 154. b ; how used and 
translated, 157. b. ftn. 2; tenses how 
used, 162 ; vowel of pres. subjv., 179. a. 
1, &. 1, c. 1, d. Classification of uses, 
438; hortatory subjv., 439, 440; optative 
subjv., 441, 442 ; deliberative, 443, 444 ; 
potential subjv., 445, 446 ; subjv. of mod- 
esty, 447. 1; tenses of subjv., 480-485; 
dependent clauses, 481 ; subjv. in ind. 
disc, 580; in informal ind. disc, 592; 
of integral part, 593. 

suboles, decl., 78. 2. 

Subordinate clauses, defined, 278. b ; use, 
519-593; in ind. disc, 579-593. 

Subordinate conjs., 223. 6, 224. II. a-f. 

Substance, gen. of, 344 ; abl. of, 403. 

Substantive clauses, 560-572 ; nature and 
classes of, 560 (cf. 561, 562) ; clauses of 



purpose, 563-566; of result, 567-571; 
indie w. quod, 572 ; indirect questions, 
573-576; adj. w. subst. clauses, 289. d\ 
inf. clauses, 452. 

Substantive use of adjs., 288 ; of posses- 
sive prons., 302. d. 

Substantive verb (esse), 272, 284. 6. 

subter, use, 220. c, 221. 23. 

suetus, w. inf., 460. b. 

Sufiixes, 232; primary, list of, 233, 234; 
significant, 235-255. 

sui, decl., 144. b; use, 299, 300; w. gen. 
of gerund, 504. c. 

sum, conj., 170; as copula, 284; as sub- 
stantive verb, id. 6; omitted, 319. b; 
w. dat. of possession, 373 ; position, 598. 

summus, form, 130. a. ftn. 2; (top of), 
293. 

sunt qui, 535. a. 

suovetaurilia, 265. 1. 

supellex, decl., 79. c. 

super, use, 220. c, 221. 24; in comps., 267. 
a ; in comps., w. dat., 370. 

supera, defect., 111. b (cf. 130. a. n. 2 ); 
comp., 130. 6; superi, id. 

superior, compar., 130. 6. 

Superlative, suffix, 124. ftn. ; in -rimus, 
125; of adjs. in -lis, 126; w. maxime, 
128; takes gend. of partitive, 286. b. 
N. ; of eminence, 291. b ; w. quam, vel, 
or unus, id. c; denoting order, succes- 
sion, 293 ; w. quisque, 313. b. 

superstes, decl., 121. a. 4. 

Supine, noun of decl. IV, 94. 6, 159. b ; 
stem, 164. 3 ; formation, 178, 179. a-d 
(cf. 164. ftn.) ; irregular forms of, conj. 
I, 209; conj. II, 210; allied with forms 
in -tor, 236. a. n. 1 ; Supine in -um, use 
of, 509 ; in -u, 510 ; as abl. of specifica- 
tion, 510. n. 1 . 

supplex, decl., 121. b. 1. 

supplied, w. dat., 368. 3. 

supra, use, 220. a, 221. 25. 

-sura, noun ending, 238. b. 

Surds, 3. 

-surio, vbs. in, 263. 4. 

-sus, phonetic form of -tus, 94 ; noun 
ending, 238. b. 

sus, decl., 79 and a. 

suus, use, 299. 

Swearing, vbs. of, constr., 388. d, 580. c. 

Syllables, rules for division of, 7; open 
etc., id. n. 2 ; long and short, 603. e 9 f 
and notes. 

Synaeresis, 603. c. n.,/. n. 4 , 642. 

Synalcepha, 612. e. N., 642. 

Synchysis, 598. h y 641. 

Syncope, 640. 

Synecdoche, defined, 641. 

Synecdochical ace, 397. b. 



472 



INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS 



Synesis, 280. a; in gend. and number, 
286. b ; in sequence of tenses, 485. i. 

Synizesis, 603. c. N., 642. 

Synopsis of tenses (am5), 180; of imper- 
sonal vbs., 207. 

Syntactic compounds, 267. 

Syntax, 268-601 ; historical development 
of, 268. Important rules of Syntax, 594. 

T changed to s, 15. 5, 178; t preceding 
stem-vowel of vb., 176. b. 1; t- (s-), 
supine stem-ending, 178, 179. a. 2, b. 2, 
c. 2, d. 

taedet, impersonal, 208. b; constr., 354. 
6, c and n. 

taeter, decl., 112. a. 

Taking away, vbs., of, 381. 

Talent, value of, 637. 

talis, 151. i, 152. 

talis ut etc., 537. n. 2 . 

tam, correl. w. quam, 323. g; correl. w. 
ut, 537. N. 2 . 

tamen, as correl., 527. c; position of, 
324.^. 

tametsi, concessive use, 527. c and n. K 

tamquam, in conditional clauses, 524 ; w. 
primary tenses, id. n. K 

tandem, in questions, 333. a and n. 

tanti, gen. of value, 417 and c ; tanti est 
ut, 568. 

tantd following quanto, 414. a. 

tantum, w. subj. of proviso, 528. 

tantum abest ut, 571. b. 

tantus, 151. i, 152; tantus ut, 537. N. 2 . 

-tas, -tia, noun endings, 241. 

Taste, vbs. of, w. ace, 390. a. 

-te (enclitic), 143. d and n. 

Teaching, vbs. of (two aces.), 396. 

tego, conj., 186. 

Telling, vbs. of, constr., 459. 

Temporal clauses, defined, 279. 6, 541- 
556; as protasis, 542; w. postquam etc., 
543 ; w. cum, 544-549 ; w. antequam and 
priusquam, 550, 551; w. dum, ddnec, 
quoad, 552-556; replaced by abl. abs., 
420. 

Temporal numerals, 139. b ; conjunctions, 
224. II. d. 

tempus est ablre, 504. n. 2 . 

Tendency, adjs. denoting, 251. 

tener, decl., 111. a. 

Tenses^ 154. c ; of passive voice, 156 ; of 
participles, 158; classification, mean- 
ing, and use, 160-162; of the ind., 160, 
161; of the subj v., 162; endings, 166; 
of completed action, formation of, 179. 
/, g ; synopsis of, 180. 

Tenses, Syntax, 464-486; classified, 464; 
of ind., 465-479 ; Present tense, 465-459 ; 
Imperfect, 470, 471; Future, 472; of 
Completed action, 473-478 ; Epistolary 



tenses, 479 ; of subj v., 480, 481 ; sequence 
of, 482-485; tenses of the inf., 486; tense 
emphatic, 598. d. (3) ; tenses of inf. in 
ind. disc, 584; tenses of subj v. in ind. 
disc, 585; affected by repraesentcitio, 
id. b andN. ; in condition in ind. disc, 
589. Notes on origin of syntax, 436, 464. 

tenus, constr., w. gen., 359. 6; w. abl., 
221. 26; position, 435, 599. d. 

ter- (tor-, ter-, tor-, tr-), primary suffix, 
234. II. 15. 

-ter, adv. ending, 214. 6, c. 

Terence, absque me etc, 517. f ; prosodial 
forms, 628. 6, 629. 

teres, decl., 121. a. 3; compar., 131. b. 

-terior, ending, p. 56. ftn. 2. 

Terminations of inflection, meaning of, 
21. b; terminations of nouns, 39; of 
verbs, 166. (See Endings.) 

-tenuis, as adj. ending, 250. 

terra marique, 427. a. 

terrester, decl., 115. a. 

-terus, ending, p. 56. ftn. 2. 

Tetrameter, Iambic, 619. a. 

Than, how expressed, 406. 

That of, not expressed in Lat., 297./. N. 

The, as correlative, 414. a and ftn. 

Thematic verbs, 174. 1. 

Thematic vowel e / , 174. 2. 1. 

Thesis and Arsis, 611. 

Thinking, vbs. of, constr. w. ace and 
inf., 459. 

Third conj., of vbs., prin. parts, 173 ; pres. 
stem, how formed, 176; formation, id., 
179. c ; paradigm, 186 ; in -io, paradigm, 
188 ; list of vbs., w. principal parts, 211 ; 
derivation of vbs. in -uo, £61. 

Third declension, of nouns, 53-87 ; mute 
stems, 56-60; liquid stems, 61-64; i- 
stems, 65-78; pure i-stems, 66-69; 
mixed i-stems, 70-78 ; peculiar forms, 
79; loc, 80; Greek nouns, 81-83; rules 
of gend., 84-87. 

Though, see Although. 

Thought, considered as result, 571. c. 

Threatening, vbs. of, 367, 580. c. 

ti-, primary sufiix, 234. II. 2. 

-tia (-ties), noun ending, 241. 

-ticus, adj. ending, 247. 

tigris, decl., 82. 

-tilis, adj. ending, 252. 

-tim, advs. in, 75. a. 3, 215. 2. 

Time (see Temporal Clauses), 465 ff., 481, 
545, 546. 

Time, abl. abs. to denote, 419, 420. 1 ; time 
when,423; durationoftime,424.6; time 
during or within which, w. ordinal, id. 
c ; distance of time, id./; corresponding 
to Eng. place, id. d. 

Time, advs. of, 217. b. 

Time, mode of reckoning, 630. 






INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS 



473 



timed, w. dat. or ace, 367. c; w. subjv., 
564. 

-timus, adj. ending, 130. a. ftn. 2, 250. 

-tid, noun ending, 233. 2, 238. b. 

-tiS (-sio), -tura, -tus (-tutis), noun end- 
ings, 238. b. 

-tium, noun ending, 241. b. N. 

-tivus, verbal adj. ending, 251. 

to- (ta-), primary suffix, 234. II. 1. 

-to, -its, intensive or iterative vbs. in, 
263. 2. 

Too ... to, 535. c. n. 

-tor (-sor), -trix, nouns of agency in, 236. 
a; used as adjs., 321. c. 

-tSria, noun ending, 254. 4. 

-tSrium, noun ending, 233. 2, 254. 5. 

-tSrius, adj. ending, 233. 2; as noun end- 
ing, 250. a. 

tot, indeclinable, 122. b; correl., 152. 

totidem, indeclinable, 122. b. 

tStus, decl., 113 ; nouns w., in abl. without 
prep, {place where) , 429. 2. 

Towns, names of, gend., 32 and a, 48. 
Exc. ; names of towns in -e, decl., 76. 
N. 2 ; locative of, 427. 3 ; as place from 
which, id. 1 ; as place to which, id. 2. 

tr-, stems in (pater etc.), 61. 4. 

traicio, constr., 395. n. 1 , 8 ; traiectus lora, 
id. n. 8 . 

trans, 220. a; use, 221. 27; comps. of, w. 
ace, 388. b ; w. two aces., 395. 

Transitive verbs, 273. 1, 274 ; absolute use, 
273. n. 2 ; how translated, 274. b ; w. 
dat., 362. 

Transposition of vowels, 177. a. N. 

Trees, names of, gend., 32. 

tres, decl., 134. b. 

tri-, stem-ending of nouns, 66; of adjs., 
115. a. 

Tribe, abl. of , 403. a. n. 8 . 

Tribrach, 609. a. 3. 

tribulis, decl., 76. a. 2. 

tribus, gend., 90. Exc; decl., 92. c. 

tridens, decl., 76. 6. 2. 

Trimeter, Iambic, 618. 

Triptotes, 103. d. 

triremis, decl., 76. 6. 2. 

-tris, adj. ending, 250. 

triumpho, w. abl., 404. a. 

-trix, see -tor. 

tro-, primary suffix, 234. 16. 

-trS, advs. in, 215. 4. 

Trochaic verse, 613, 620. 

Trochee, 609. a, 1 ; irrational, id. e, 623 
and n. 

-trum, noun ending, 240. 

Trusting, vbs. of, constr., 367. 

tu-, primary suffix, 234. II. 3. 

-tu, -su, supine endings, 159. b. 

tu, decl., 143 (see tute, tiitimet). 

-tudS, -tus, noun endings, 241. 



tull (tetuli), 200; derivation, id. ftn. 2; 

quantity, 605. Exc. 
-turn, -sum, supine endings, 159. 6. 
turn, tunc, meaning, 217. 6; correl. w. 

cum, 323. g. 
turn . . . turn, 323./. 
-tura, -tus, noun ending, 238. b. 
-turiS, desiderative vbs. in, 263. 4. 
-turnus, adj. ending, 250. 
-turris, decl., 67 (cf. 75. 6). 
-tus, adj. ending, 246 ; noun ending, 94, 241.. 
-tus, adv. ending, 215. 6. 
tussis, decl., 75. a. 2. 
tute, 143. d ; tutimet, id. 
Two accusatives, 391. 
Two datives, 382. 1. 

U (v) , as consonant, 5 ; after g, q, s, id. n. 2 ; 

not to follow u or v, 6. a, b ; u for e in 

conj. Ill, 179. c. 1. 
u-, primary suffix, 234. 1. 3. 
u-stems, of nouns, decl. Ill, 79 and a; 

decl. IV, 88 ; of vbs., 174, 176. d, 259. 3. 
uber, decl., 119. 
ubi, derivation, 215. 5; in temporal 

clauses, 542, 543. 
-ubus, in dat. and abl. plur., decl. IV, 

92. c. 
-uis (-uos), in gen., decl. IV, 92. e. 
-ulis, adj. ending, 248. 
iillus, decl., 113; use, 311, 312. 
ulterior, compar., 130. a. 
ultra, 220. a; use, 221. 28; following 

noun, 435. 
-ulus, diminutive ending, 243; verbal adj. 

ending, 251. 
-urn for -arum, 43. d; for -Srum, 49. d; 

-um in gen. plur. of personal prons., 295. 

b ; -um for -ium, decl. Ill, 78 ; in gen. 

plur. of adjs., 121. b ; for -uum, decl. IV, 

92. b. 
Undertaking, vbs. of, w. gerundive, 500. 4. 
unt-, stem-ending, 83. e. 
unus, decl., 113; meaning, 134. a; w. 

superl., 291. c. 
unus qui, w. subjv., 535. b. 
unus quisque, decl., 151. g\ use, 313. 
uo-, suffix, see vo-. 
-uS, vbs. in, 261. 
-uos, see -uis. 
-ur, nouns in, 87. 
urbs, decl., 72; use in relations of place, 

428. b. 
Urging, vbs. of, with ut, 563. 
-uriS, desiderative vbs. in, 263. 4. 
-urnus, adj. ending, 250. 
-urus, fut. part, in, 158. 6, 498; w. fui, 

498. 6, 517. d; in ind. questions, 575. a; 

-urus fuisse, in ind. disc, 589. b. 3. 
-us, nom. ending, in decl. II, 46 ; -us for-er 

in Greek nouns, decl. II, 52. b ; -us, nom. 



474 



INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS 



ending in decl. Ill, 63. Exc. 2; gend., 
87; decl. IV, 88; gend., 90; neut. 
ending, 238. a. 

-us, Greek nom. ending, 83. e. 

Use, adjs. of, constr., 385. a. 

usque, w. ace., 432. b. 

usus (need), w. abl., 411. 

ut (uti), correlative w. ita, sic, 323. g; to 
denote concession, 440, 527. a ; ut (as) 
w. ind. equiv. to concession, 527. /; w. 
optative subjv., 442. a; used ellipti- 
cally in exclamations, 462. a ; in clauses 
of purpose, 531; ufne, id., 563. e. N. 2 ; 
ut non, 531. 1. n. 2 ; of result, 537; ut 
non etc., 538 ; ut temporal, 542, 543 ; vbs. 
foil, by clauses w. ut, 563, 568 ; omis- 
sion after certain vbs., 565 and notes, 
569. 2. n. 2 ; w. vbs. of fearing, 564 and n. 

ut, utpote, quippe, w. relative clause, 535. 
e. n. i ; w. cum, 549. N. K 

ut primum, 543. 

ut semel, 543. 

ut si, constr., 524. 

uter, decl., 6Q. 

uterque, form and decl., 151,^, use, 313; 
constr. in agreement and as partitive, 
346. d. 

utilis, w. dat. of gerund etc., 505. a. 

utinam, w. subjv. of wish, 442. 

utor etc., w. abl., 410; w. ace, id. a. n. 1 ; 
gerundive use of, 500. 3, 503. n. 2 . 

utpote qui, 535. e. n. i. 

utrum ... an, 335 and d. 

-utus, adj. ending, 246. 

-uus, verbal adj. ending, 251. 

V (u), 1. &, 5 and N. 1 ; suffix of perf., 
177. a, 179. a. 2, b. 2, d ; suppressed in 
perf., 181 ; list of vbs. in conj. Ill w. v 
in perf., 211. c; v often om. in perf. of 
eo and its comps., 203. 6. 

vafer, decl., 112. a; compar., 131. a. 

valde, use, 291. c. n. * ; valde quam, 575. d. 

Value, gen. of indefinite, 417. 

Value, measures of, 632-638. 

vannus, gend., 48. Exc. 

vapuld, neutral passive, 192. b. 

Variable nouns, 104-106 (cf. 98. c, d); 
adjs., 122. a. 

Variations, see Phonetic Variations. 

Variations of spelling, 6. 

vas, decl., 103. g. 2. 

vas, decl., 79. e, 105. b. 

vates, decl., 78. 1. 

-ve, vel, use, 324. e, 335. d. n. 

vel (see -ve), w. superl., 291. c. 

Velars, p. 2. ftn. 3. 

velim, vellem, subjv. of modesty, 447. 1. N. 

velim, vellem, w. subjv. (=opt.). 442. 6, 
(=imv.), 449. c, 

velut, velut si, 524. 



veneo (venum eo), 192. 6, 428. i. 

venerat = aderat, 476. 

Verba sentiendl et decldrandi, 397. e; 
459, 579 ; passive use of, 582 ; in poets 
and later writers, id. n. 

Verbal adjs., 251-253; in -ax, w. gen., 
349. c. 

Verbal nouns w. dat., 367. d. 

Verbal nouns and adjs. w. reflexive, 
301. d. 

Verbal roots, 228. 1. 

Verbs, defined, 20. d\ inflection, 153, 
154; noun and adj. forms of, 155; 
signification of forms, 156-162; per- 
sonal endings, 163; the three stems, 
164; forms of the vb., 164-166 (notes 
on origin and hist, of vb. forms, 164. 
ftn., 168, 169) ; table of endings, 166; 
influence of imitation, 169. ftn. ; reg- 
ular vbs., 171-189; the four conjuga- 
tions, 171-173; prin. parts of, 172; 
mixed vbs., 173. a; deponents, 190, 
191 ; semi-deponents, 192 ; periphrastic 
forms, 193-196 ; irregular vbs., 197-204 ; 
defective, 205, 206; impersonal, 207, 
208. Classified lists of vbs., 209-212. 
Derivation of vbs., 256-263; comp. 
vbs., 267; vowels in comp. vbs., id. a. 
n. 2 . Index of vbs., pp. 437 ff. 

Verbs, Syntax. Subject implied in end- 
ing, 271. a; rules of agreement, 316- 
319; vb. omitted, 319; rules of syn- 
tax, 437-593. Cases w. vbs., see under 
Accusative etc. Position of vb., 596, 
598. d,j. (See under the names of the 
Moods etc.) 

vereor, w. gen., 357. 6. 1; w. subjv., 564. 

veritus, as pres. part., 491. 

vero, 324. d, j ; in answers, 336. a. 1 ; po- 
sition of, 599. b. 

Verse, 612. 

Versification, 612-629; forms of verse, 
613. 

versus, position of, 599. d. 

verto, constr., 417. b. 

veru, gend., 91. 

verum or vero, use, 324. d,j. 

vescor, w. abl., 410; w. ace, id. a. N.J; 
gerundive, 500. 3, 503. N. 2 . 

vesper, decl., 50. b. 

vesper! (loc), 50. 6, 427. a. 

vester, decl., 112. a, 145. 

vestri as obj. gen., 143. c, 295. b. 

vestrum as part, gen., 143. 6, 295. b (fit 

N. 2 ). 

veto, w. ace. and inf., 563. a. 

vetus, decl., 119, 121. d; compar., 125. 

via, abl. of manner, 412. b. 

vicem, adverbial use of, 397. a. 

vicinus, w. gen., 385. c. 

vicis, decl., 103. h. 1. 



INDEX OF WORDS AND SUBJECTS 



475 



videlicet, derivation, 216. 

video ut, 563. 

videor, w. dat., 375. b. 

vin' (visne), 13. n. 

vir, decl., 47, 50. b. 

virgo, decl., 62. 

virus, gender of, 48. a. 

vis, stem, 71. 6; decl., 79. 

viscera, 101. N. *. 

viso, 263. 4. N. 

vo- (va-), primary suffix, 234. II. 8. 

v5calis, decl., 76. b. 2. 

Vocative, defined, 35,/; form, 38. a; in 
-I of nouns in -ius, decl. II, 49. c; of 
Greek nouns, id. c. n. ; of adjs. in -ius, 

110. a. Syntax, 340. 

Voices, 154. a, 156 ; middle voice, id. a 

n., 163. ftn. 2, 190. e. 
volo and comps., conj., 199; part, of, w 

dat. of the person judgiug, 378, n. ; w, 

inf., 456 and n. ; w. perf. act. inf. in 

prohibitions, 486. c; w. perf. part., 486. 

d and n., 497. c. n. ; w. subjv. or inf 

563. 6. 
volucer, decl., 115. a. 
volucris, decl., 78. 
-volus, adj. in, comp., 127. 
vos, 143 and a. 
voster etc., see vester. 
voti damnatus, 352. a. 
Vowel changes, 15. 1-3 ; vowel variations, 

17. 
Vowel roots of verbs, 179. a-c. 
Vowel stems of verbs, 259-262. 
Vowel suffixes (primary), 234. I. 
Vowels, 1; pronunciation, 8; long and 

short, 10; contraction, 15. 3; quantity 

of final vowels in case-endings, 38. g ; 

vowel modified in noun stems, decl. 

111, 56. a; lengthened in root, 177. d, 



231. b ; list of vbs. w. vowel lengthen- 
ing in perf., conj. Ill, 211. e. 

vulgus (volgus), gend., 48. a. 

-vus, verbal adj. ending, 251. 

W, not in Latin alphabet, 1 ; sound of, 1. 
b. n. 

Want, words of, w. abl., 401 ; w. gen., 356. 

Way by which (abl.), 429. a. 

Weight, measures of, 637. 

Whole, gen. of, 346 ; numbers expressing 
the whole, id. e. 

Wills, fut. imv. in, 449. 2. 

Winds, gender of names of, 31. 

Wish, expressed by subjv., 441 ; as a con- 
dition, 521. 6; wish in informal ind. 
disc, 592. 1. 

Wishing, vbs. of, w. inf., 486. d (cf. 457) ; 
w. subst. clause of purpose, 563. b ; w. 
ace. and inf., id. 

Without, w. verbal noun, 496. n. 3 . 

Women, names of, 108. b and ftn. 

Words and Forms, 1-267. 

W^ords, formation of, 227-267; arrange- 
ment of, 595-601. 

Would (Eng. auxiliary), how expressed 
in Lat., 157. b. 



X, nom. ending, 56; gend., 1 
in vbs., 211. a. 



x from s, 



Y, of Greek origin, 1. n. *. 

Year, 630; months of, 630, 631; date, 

424. g. 
-y%-, suffix, 174. 
Yes, in Latin, 336. 
yo- (ya-), primary suffix, 234. II. 11. 
-ys, nom. ending, 82 ; quantity, 604. i. 

Z, of Greek origin, 1. a. n. 



LATIN AUTHOES AND THEIE WORKS 
CITED IN THIS BOOK 



Note. — In the citations the names Caesar, Cicero, Sallust (with Iugurtha), and 
Virgil are not generally given. Thus, "B. G." refers to Caesar's Bellura Gallicum; 
" Fam." to Cicero's letters ad Familiares; " lug." to Sallust's Iugurtha; " Aen." to 
Virgil's AZneid, etc. 



Ap., Apuleius (a.d. 125-?) : 
Met., Metamorphoses. 

, B. Air., Bellum Afri- 

cum. 

Caesar (b.c. 100-44): 

B. C, Bellum Civile. 
B. G., Bellum Galli- 

CUTYl. 

Cato (b.c. 234-149): 
de M., de Moribus. 
R. R., de Re Rustica. 
Catull., Catullus (b.c. 87- 

54). 
Cic, Cicero (b.c. 106-43): 
Acad., Academica. 
Ad Her., [ad Keren- 

nium]. 
Arch., pro Archia. 
Att., ad Atticum. 
Balb., pro Balbo. 
Brut., Brutus de Claris 

Oratoribus. 
C&ec., pro Caecina. 
Caecil., Divinatio in 

Caecilium. 
Cael., pro M. Caelio. 
Cat., in Catilinam. 
Cat. M., Cato Maior {de 

Senectute) . 
Clu., pro Cluentio. 
Deiot., pro Deiotaro. 
De Or., de Oratore. 
Div., de Divinatione. 
Dom., pro Domo Sua. 
Fam., ad Familiares. 
Fat., de Fato. 
Fin., de Finibus. 
Flacc, pro Flacco. 
Font., pro M. Fonteio. 
Har. Resp. , de Haruspi- 

cum Responsis. 
Inv., de Inventione 

Rhetorica. 



Cic. Lael., Laelius {de Ami- 

citia) . 
Leg. Agr., de Lege 

Agraria. 
Legg., de Legibus. 
Lig., pro Ligario. 
Manil., pro Lege Ma- 

nilia. 
Marc .,pro Mar cello . 
Mil., pro Milone. 
Mur., pro Murena. 
N. D., de Natura De- 

orum. 
Off., de Officiis. 
Or., Orator. 
Par., Paradoxa. 
Part. Or., de Partitione 

Oratoria. 
Phil., Philippicae. 
Plane, pro Plancio. 
Pison., in Pisonem. 
Prov. Cons., de Provin- 

ciis Consularibus. 
Q. Fr., ad Q. Fratrem. 
Quinct., pro Quinctio. 
Rabir., pro Rabirio. 
Rab. Post., pro Rabirio 

Postumo. 
Rep., de Re Publica. 
Rose. Am., pro Roscio 

Amerino. 
Rose. Com., pro Roscio 

Comoedo. 
Scaur., pro Scauro. 
Sest., pro Sestio. 
Sull., pro Sulla. 
Tim., Timaeus {de Uni- 

verso) . 
Top., Topica. 
Tull., pro Tullio. 
Tusc, Tusculanae Dis- 

putationes. 
Vat., in Vatinium. 
476 



Cic. Verr., in Verrem. 
Claud., Claudianus (abt. 
a.d. 400) : 
iv C. H., de Quarto 
Consulatu Honorii. 
Enn., Ennius (b.c. 239- 

169). 
Gell., A. Gellius (d. a.d. 

175). 
Hirtius (d. B.C. 43) : 

?&. X\. y Bellum Alex- 
andrinum. 
Hor., Horace (b.c. 65-8) : 
A. P., de Arte Poetica. 
C. S., Carmen Saccu- 
lar e. 
Ep., Epistles. 
Epod. Epodes. 
Od. Odes. 
S. Satires. 
lust., Justinus (abt. a.d. 

150). 
Iuv., Juvenal (abt. a.d. 60- 

140). 
Liv.,Livy(B.c.59-A.D.17).- 
Lucr., Lucretius (b.c. 96- 

55). 
Mart., Martial (a.d. 43- 
? 104) : 
Ep., Epigrams. 
Nep., Nepos (b.c. 99-24) : 
Ages., Agesilaus. 
Ale, Alcibiades. 
Att., Atticus. 
Dat., Datames. 
Dion, Dion. 
Epam., Epaminondas. 
Eum., Eumenes. 
Hann., Hannibal. 
Milt., Miltiades. 
Paus., Pausanias. 
Them., Themistocles. 
Timoth., Timotheus. 



LIST OF AUTHORS CITED 



477 



Ov.,Ovid (b.c.43-a.d.17): 

A. A., Ars Amatoria. 

F., Fasti. 

H., Heroides. 

M., Metamorphoses. 

Pont., Epistulae ex 
Ponto. 

Trist., Tristia. 
Pers., Persius (a.d. 34-62) : 

Sat., Satires. 
Phaed., Phaedrus (abt. 

a.d. 40). 
PL, Plautus (B.C. 254-184) : 

Am., Amphitruo. 

Asin., Asinaria. 

Aul., Aulularia. 

Bac, Bacchides. 

Capt., Captivi. 

Cist., Cistellaria. 

Cure, Curculio. 

Epid., Epidicus. 

Men., Menaechmi. 

Merc, Mercator. 

Mi J., Miles Gloriosus. 

Most., Mostellaria. 

Pers., Persa. 

Poen., Poenulus. 

Ps., Pseudolus. 

Rud., Rudens. 

Stich., Stiehus. 

Trin., Trinummus. 

True., Truculentus. 



Plin., Pliny, senior (a.d. 
23-79) : 
H. N., Historia Natu- 
ralis. 
Plin., Pliny, junior (a.d. 
62-113) : 
Ep., Epistles. 
Prop., Propertius (b.c. 49- 

15). 
Pub. Syr., Publilius Syrus 

(abt. B.C. 44). 
Q. C, Q. Curtius(abt. a.d. 

50). 
Quint., Quintilian (abt. 

a.d. 35-95). 
Sail., Sallust (b.c. 86-34) : 
Cat., CatUina. 
Ep. Mith., Epistula 

Mithridatis. 
lug., lugurtha. 

, S. C. de Bac., Senatus 

Consultum de Baccha- 
nalibus (b.c. 186). 
Sen., Seneca (b.c. 4-a.d. 
65): 
Dial., Dialogues. 
Ep., Epistles. 
Here. Fur., Hercules 

Furens. 
Here. Oet., Hercules 

Oetaeus. 
Med., Medea. 



Sen. Q. N., Quaestiones Sa- 
turates. 
Sil., Silius Italicus (abt. 

a.d. 25-101). 
Suet., Suetonius (abt. a.d. 
75-160) : 
Aug., Augustus. 
Dom., Domitianus. 
Galb., Galba. 
Tac., Tacitus (abt. a.d. 
55-120) : 

Agr., Agricola. 
Ann., Annates. 
H., Historiae. 
Ter., Terence (d. b.c. 159) : 
Ad., Adelphi. 
And., Andria. 
Eun., Eunuchus. 
Haut., Hautontimoru- 

menos. 
Hec, Hecyra. 
Ph., Phormio. 
Val., Valerius Maximus 

(abt. a.d. 26). 
Varr., Varro (b.c. 116-27) : 

R. R., de Re Rustica. 
Veil., Velleius Paterculus 

(abt. b.c. 19-a.d. 31). 
Verg., Virgil (b.c. 70-19). 
Aen., 2Eneid. 
Eel., Eclogues. 
Georg., Georgics. 



ALLEN AND GREENOUGH'S LATIN GRAMMAR 



PAEALLEL KEFERENCES 



Old 

1 

1. a 
2-4 

5 (p. 4) 
6 
7 

8-11 
.0. b 
a. 1 

1. a. 2 

1. c 

1. e 

1. e. 3 and n. 

2 

.2. Gtr-C 

3 

3. 6, c 
4 

.4. 6 

4. c 
4. d 
4. e 
5 

5 (p. 10) 

6 

6. N. 4 

.7. a-c 

.7. N. 

8 

8. a-c 

d 

e 

8./ 

9. a, 6 
9. c 

9. d. 1-3 
20 
21 



New 



3-5 
10 

I. a and n. 
6. a, b 
14-19 

15. 2 
15. 4 
15. 5 
15. 11 
15. 6 
16 
6 

6. N. 1-3 
13 

13. N. 
7 

7. N.l 

7.6 

7. N. 2 

18 

19 and n. i 

8 

II. b. n. 

8. N. 

9-11 

10. a-c 
11.6 

11. c 
10. e 
12 

12. a 

12. a. JE'xc. 

21 

24 



Old 

22 
23 
24 
25 

25. e 
25. f-i 

26 
27 
28 
28. a 

28. 6. n. 

29. 1 
29. 2 
29. a 
29. 6 

29. c 
30 

30. a 

30. b 
31 

31. h. n. 

32. ftn. 1 
32 

33 

34 

35 

36 

36./ 

37 

37. a, b 

38 

39 

39. a 

39. b 
40 

40. d 
40. e-g 
41 



New 

25 
26 

28 

20 

20. b. n. l 

20. e-h 

22 

23 

29 

30 

30. a and n. 3 
31 

32 

31. a, 6, n. 

32. a, b 
33 

34 

34. Na 

35 

27. a. 

36 

37 

38 

39 

40-42 

43 

43. n. l 
44 

44. 6, a 
45-47 
48 

48. Exc. 
48 a. 

49 

49. c and n. 
49. d, g, e 
50 



479 



480 ALLEN AND GREENOUGH'S LATIN GRAMMAR 

Old New Old New 

41. d, e 50. c 70. b 

42 51 70. c 92. b 

43 52 70. d 92. c 
3d decl. 53-55 70. e 92. d 
44-50 56-64 70./ 93 

44 56, 58 70. g 93. n. l 

45 56. a 70. h 92. / 

46 57, 59 71 94 

47 57. a 71. a 94. b 
47. a 70 71. b 94. c 
47. b 60. a 72 95, 96 

47. c 62. n. 3 73 97 and a 

48 61, 62. n. l, 2, 63 74. a 98. n. 

48. a 61. 1 74. b 98. c 
48. b 61. 2, 3, 63. 1 74. c 98. b 
48. c 61. 4 74. d 98. a 
48. d 62. n. 2, 63. 2 74. ftn. 98. a" 

48. e 62. n. 2 75 99, 100 

49, 50 62-64 76 101, 102 
51-54 65-73 76. 1 101. 1, 2 
51. b 66 76. 2, 3 101, 3, 4 
51. c 68 76. a-c 102. 1-3 
52 67,69 77 103 

53. a, b 65. 1. a 77. 1-4 103. a-d 

53. c 65. 1. 6 77. 2. a-/ 103. 6. 1-6 

54 70-72 77. 3. a-e 103. c 

54. 1, 2 71. 1-4, 6 77. 4. a-c 103. a". 1-3 
54. 3 71. 5 77. 5. a-d 103. /. 1-4 
54. ftn. 2 73 77. 6. a-c 103. a. 1-3 

55 74 77. 7. a-c 103. h. 1, 2 

56 75 78 104 

57 76 78. 1 105 

57. c-e 16. n. 1-3 78. J. e 105. e, / 

58 77 78. 1. / 105. g 

59 78 78. 2 106 
60, 61 79 79 107 

62 80 79. b 317. d. n. 2 

62. a p. 34. ftn. 79. c 101. n. i 

62. n. 80. ftn. 79. d 101. n. 2 

63, 64 81-83 80 and a 108 

63. a-e 83. a-e 80. b-d 108. a-c 

63. / 81 P. 47, top 109 

63. a-i 82 81 110 

64 82 82 111, 112 

65 84-87 82. a 111. a. n. 
66, 67 82. b 111. a 

68 88, 89 82. c 112. a 

68. n. 82. d 111. 6 

69 90 83 113 

69. b 91 83. ftn. 2 113. 6 

70 92 83. a 113. a 

70. a 92. a, c 83. 6 113. c-e 



PARALLEL REFERENCES 481 

New Old New 





114-116 


98 


140-145 




115. a 


98. a 


142 


N. 


115. a. n. l 


98. 6 


143. a 




116. N. 


98. c 


143. a. n. 




115. N. 2 


98. 2 


144 




117-119 


98. 3 


145 




119 


99. a 


302. a 




121. e 


99. 6, c 


143. 6, c 




120 


99. d 


145. c 




120. b 


99. e 


143./ 




120. c 


99./ 


143. d and n. 




121 


100, 101 


146 




121. a. 4 


100. ftn. 


146. n. l 


d 


121. 6, c 


100. a 


146. N. 4, 6 




121. d 


100. b 


146. N. 5 




122. a-c 


100. c 


146. N. 7-9 




122 


P. 67, top 


146. a 




288, 289 


101. a 


146. n. 2 




122. d 


101. b 


146. n. 6 




321. c 


101. c 


146. n. 3 




214. d, e 


101. d 


146. a. n. 2 




123, 124 


P. 67. ftn. 


146. a. n. l 




125 and a 


102 


297, 298 




126 


102. e 


298. c 




127 


102. e. n. 


298. c. n. 2 




128 


102./ 


297. e 




124. a 


103 


147 




243 


104 


148-150 




129 


104. n. 


150 




130, 131 


104. b-e 


150. a-d 




131. c 


104./ 


544 


1 


130. a 


105 


151 


2 


131. a 


105. d 


149, 151. e, /, 310. a 


3 


131. 6 


105. d. n. 


310. b 


N. 


131. d 


105. e 


151. a 




218 and a 


105. e, quotus 




b 


291. a-c 


quisque 


313. 6. n. 2 




313. 6 


105./, <; 


151. A, i 


g 


291. c. n. 1-3 


105. ft 


311 




132-134 


105. * 


148. c, 151. / 




133. n. l 


106 


152 




134. a 


106. 6 


308. h 


c 


134. b and n. 


106. c 


414. a 


2d par. 


133. N. 2 


107 


323. g 


f 


134. c-e 


108 


154 




136, 137 


109 


155 


d 


137. a-d 


110 


154. c 




138 


110. a 


480, 484. c, 576. a 




138. a 


110. b 


164. 3. a 




" 139 


110. c 


154. c 




135. e 


110. d 


164. 3. 6, c and n. 




139. d 


111 


156 



482 



ALLEN AND GREENOUGH'S LATIN GRAMMAR 



Old 

112 

112. b. n. 
113 

113. b. 2 
113. e-g 
114 

115 

115. a. 1 
115. a. 2 
115. b 
115. c 
115. d 
116 
117 

117. n. 2 
.118 

118. N. 

119. 120 
119. a 
119. b 

119. b. n. 

120. n. 
121 

121. a~c 
122 

122. a 
122. b 
122. c 
122. d 

122. n. 
123 

123. a 
123. 6 
123. c 
123. d 
123. e 
123./ 
124 
125 

125. n. l 
125. n. 2 
126 

127 
128 

128. a. 1 
128. a. 2 
128. 6 
128. c 
128. d 
128. e 
1st conj. 
129 



ftn. 



New 

157 

157. b. 

158 

499. 2 

494, 495 

159 

160-162 

472. b 

466, 467. 1 

471 

161 

162 

163 

165 

p. 81. ftn. 

166 

p. 76. ftn. 

170 

170. b 

170. b. n. 

170. a 

170. n. 

164 

164. 1-3 

171-173 

171 

172 

173 

173. a 
174 

175, 176 

176. a 

174. 1 
176. c 
176. d 
176. d. 
176. e 
177 
178 

178. n. 2 
178. N. 3 
179 

180 
181 
181. a 
181. b 

181. b. N. 2 
182 

182. a 
183 
184 
193-196 



Old 



New 



N. 1 



130 


209 


2d conj. 


185 


131 


210 


3d conj. 


186 


Verbs in -id 


188 


132 


211 


132. /. n. 


211. ftn. 3 


4th conj. 


187 


133 


212 


134 


189 


135 


190 


135. h 


191 


135. i 


191. a 


136 


192 


137 


197 


137. a 


198 


137. n. 


p. 109. ftn. 


138 


199 


139 


200 


139. ftn. 


200. ftn. 2 


140 


201 


141 


203 


141. c 


203. d 


141. d 


203. e 


142 


204 


143 


205 


143. n. 


205. 6, n. 2 


144 


206 


144. d-f 


206. e-g 


144. ^r 


206. d 


145 


207 


146 


208 


146. d. ftn. 


208. d. n. 


147 


193 


147. c. 1 


203. a 


147. c. 2 


170. a 


147. c. 3 


569. a. 


P. 119. Note. 1. b 


168. b 


P. 119. Note. 1. c 


168. c, d 


P. 120. Note. 1. d 


168. e 


P. 120. Note. 1. e 


168./ 


P. 120. Note. 1. / 


p. 286. ftn. 1 


P. 120. Note. 2 


169 


P. 121. Note. 3 


p. 77. ftn. 1 


P. 122, top 


213 


148 


214 


148. n. 


215, 216 


148. N. a-rj 


215. 1-6 


148. n. e 


216. a and n 


149 


217 


150 


326 


151 


322 



PARALLEL REFERENCES 483 

Old New Old New 

151. d 322. d and n. 164. h 250. a 

151. e 322. e, / 164. i 254 

P. 127. ftn. 219 164. k 245 

152 220 164. I 251 

153 221. 1-28 164. m 252 

154 223 164. n 253. c 
154. n. l 222 164. o 253. a 
154. n. 2 224 164. p 253. 6 

155 224 164. q, r 255 and a 

156 324. b 165 256 
156. a 324. a, 6 165. 2 257 
156. a. 3d par. 328. a 166 258 
156. a. 4th par. 324. c 166. a. 1 259. 1 
156. b 324. d 166. b 260 
156. c 324. &-g 166. c 261 
156. d", e 324. A, i 166. d 262. a, 6 
156. / 540. n. 1-3 167 263 
156. g 539. 540. a. n. 167. a 263. 1 

156. h. 1 323. g 167. 6 and n. 263. 2 and a 

156. h. 2 323. e 167. c 263. 2. 6 

156. i 527. c, d 167. d, e 263. 3, 4 

156. k 324. j 168 264 
Interjections 225, 226 168. a-c 265. 1-3 
P. 140. Note 227 168. d 265. a 

157 228 169 266 

157. n. 229. n. 170 267 

158 230, 231 170. a. n. 267. n. 2 

158. 1. a, 6 231. a, 6 170. c 267. d. 1, 2 
158. 1. c 231. c 170. d 267. c 

159 232 P. 163 268 

160 233 171 269 
160. a, b 233. 1, 2 172 270 
160. c 234 172. n. 272 
160. c. 2. a-e 234. II. 1-18 172. n. 2d par. 284. b 

161 235 173. 1 339 

162 236 173. 2 397. e 

163 237 174 271 
163. 1. a 238. a 174. 2 271. a 
163. c 239 175 273 
163. d 240 and a 175. a 273. 2 
163. d n. 240. n. 175. 6 273. 1 
163. 2 241. 1, 2 and a 176 283 

163. /, g 241. 6, c 176. 6 284 

164 242 177 274 

164. a 243 177. a 275 
164. a. r. 243. a 177. b 274. a 
164. 6 244 177. c 274. 6 
164. c 249 178 276 
164. d 248 179 277 
164. e 250 180 278. 1, 2 
164. / 246 180. c-4i 279. a-e 
164. g 247 180./ 308/ 



484 



ALLEN AND GREENOUGH'S LATIN GRAMMAR 



Old 

181, 182 
183 
184 
184. b 
184. c 
184. a*, e 
185 

186. a, b 
186. b. 2, 3 
186. c 

186. d 
187 

187. a 
187. b 
187. b. n. 
187. c 

187. d, e 

188. a-c 
188. r. 
188. a", e 
189 

190 

190. a 

191 

192 

192. b 

193 

P. 178. Note 

194 

194. b. n. 
195 

195. 2 
195. a 
195. 6 
195. c 
195. d 
195. e, / 
195. /. r. 
195.gr 
195. h, i 
195. k 

195. I 
196 

196. a 

196. a. 2. n. 
196. 6 
196. c 
196. a"-/ 
196.gr 
196. h 
196. / 
197 



New 

280 
281 
282 
282. c 

282. d 
302. e 

283, 284 
285. 1, 2 

285. n. 
282. &, c 

286. a 
287 

287. 1, 2 
287. 3 
287. 4 

287. 4. a 
286. 6, n. 

288. a-c 
288. n. 
321. c, a" 
289 
343. a 
302. a" 
290 

292 

292. a. n. 

293 

294 

295 

295. b. n. 2 
296 and 2 

296. 1 
297./ 

297. b. n. 

298. a 
296. a 
298. 6, c 
298. c. n. l 
298. d. 1 
298. d. 2, 3 

298. e 
298./ 
299 
300 

300. b 

301. a 
301. 6 
301. a"-/ 
301. c 

299. a 

300. b 
302 



Old 

197./ 

P. 186. Note 

P. 186, bottom 

198 

199 

200 

200. d 

200. e 

201. a, 6, c 
201. d 

201. e-ft 
202 

202. a 
202. 6 
202. c 
202. d 
202. e 

202. / 

203 

203. a 
203. c. n. 
204 

205 

205. c and 1 

205. c. 2 

205. d 
206 

206. c 
206. c. 1 

206. c. 2 
207 

207. n. 9, 3 
207. b 
207. c 

207. d 
208 

208. 6. 1-3 
208. c 
208. a* 

208. e 
209 

209. a 
209. b 
209. c 
209. a" 

209. e 
210 

210. a 
210. b-d 
210. d. r. 
210. e 



New 

306. b. n. 
303 

304 

305 and n. 

306 

307 

307./ 

307. d 

308. a, c, a" 

307. e 

308. /-i 
309 
310 
311 
312 
313 

313. a 
314 

314. a 

315. a 
315 
315. n. 
316 
317 
317. d 
317. e 
317. c 
318 
319 
319. a 
319. b 
321 
320 
432. a 
321. 6 
321. c. n. 
323 

323. c. 1-3 
323. d 
323./ 
323. k 
325 

326, 327 
328 
326. c 
329 

329. a 

330, 331 
332 

332. a-c 
332. c. k. 2 
333 



PARALLEL REFERENCES 485 

Old New Old New 



210. e. r. 


333. n. 




225. e 


365 


210./ 


333. a 




226 


366 


210. /. r. 


331. n. 


, 332. 6. n. 


227 


367 


211 


334, 335 


227. n. 2 


367. a. n. 2 


211. R. 


335. n. 




227. c. n. 


367. a. n. l 


212 


336 




227. e 


368 


212. b 


337 




227. / 


369 


212. b. r. 


335. d. 


N. 


228 


370 


P. 205. Note 


338 




228. n. l 


370. a 


P. 206. Note 


341 




228. a, 6 


370. 6, c 


213 


342 




228. c 


371 


213. 1, 2 and n. 


343. n. 


l, 348. n. 


229 


381 


214 and a. 1 


343 




229. c 


368. a 


214. a. 2 


343. a 




230 


372 


214. b 


343. n. 


2 


231 


373 


214. c 


343. b 




231. r. 


373. n. 


214. c. r. 


343. 6. 


N. 


231. a 


373. 6 


214. d 


343. c 




231. 6, c 


373. a 


214. d. r. 


343. c. 


N. 1 


232 


374 


214. d. n. 


343. c. 


N. 2 


232. n. 


374. a and n. i 


214. e 


344 




232. a 


375 


214./ 


343. d 




232. 6, c 


375. a, b 


214.gr 


359. b 




233 


382 


215 


345 




233. a 


382. 1 and n. l 


216 


346 




233. 6 


382. 2 


216. r. 


346. n. 


2 


234 


383 


P. 211, top 


347 




234. a 


384 


217 


348 




234. 6-d 


385. a-c 


218 


349 




234. e 


432. a 


218. b 


349. c 




235 


376 


218. c 


349. d 




235. a 


377 


218. c. r. 


358 




235. b 


378. 1, 2 


219 


350 




235. c 


378. 2. n. 


219. b 


350. d 




235. d 


379 


219. c 


351 




235. e 


379. a 


220 


352 




236 


380 


220. b 


353 




236. r. 


379. n. 


220. 6. 3 


353. 2. 


N. 


P. 235. Note 


386 


220. 6. n. 


352. n. 




237 


387 


221 


354 




237. a 


387.6 


221. d 


354. c. 


N. 


237. 6, d-/ 


388. a-d and n. l 


222 


355 




237. c 


390. a 


223 


356 




237. <7 


500. 3 


223. a 


357 




237. ft 


389 


223. c 


358 




238 


390 


223. d 


359 




238. a, 6 


390. b-d 


223. e 


359. b 




238. c 


388. d 


P. 218. Note 


360 




238. c. n. 


390. d. n. l 


224 


361 




239 


391 


225 


362 


- 


239. 1 


392 


225. 6, c 


363, 369 


239. 1. a, n. l 


393, n. 


225. d 


364 




239. a. n. 2 


393. a 



486 ALLEN AND GREENOUGH'S LATIN GRAMMAR 

Old New Old New 

239. r. 395. n. 3 249. b 410. a. n. l 

239. 2 394 249. b. n. 410. a. n. 2 

239. 2. 6 395 and r. 250 414 

239. c 396 250. r. and n. 414. a and n. 

239. c. n. l, 2 396. a, 6 250. a 414. b 

239. c. r. 396. b. n. 251 415 

239. d 396. c 252 416 

240. a 390. c, d and n. 2 252. a 417 
240. 6 397. a 252. 6-d 417. a-c 
240. c, d 397. 6, d 253 418 

240. c. n. 397. c 253. n. 418. a and n. 

240. e 423, 425 253. a 510. n. i 

240. /, g 397. e, / P. 260. Note 421 

241 340 254 426. 3 

241. c 339. a 254. a 429. 3 

241. d 340. c 254. b. 1 431 

242 399 254. b. 2 431. a 

242. n. 398 254. b. 2. r. 431. a. n. l 

243 400 255 419 

243. a 401 255. d 420 
243. b 402 256 423 
243. d 402. a 256. a, 6 424. a, 6 
243. e 411 257 425 
243. e. n. 411. a 258 426. 1, 2 
243. e. r. 411. b 258. 2. n. l 428. & 
243. / 356 258. 2. n. 2 428. c 

243. /. r. 356. n. 258. a 427. 1 

244 403 258. a. n. l 428. a 

244. a. r. 403. a. n. l 258. a. n. 2 428. / 
244. b 403. a. n. 2, 3 258. a. n. 3 428. g 

244. c-e 403. b-d 258. 6 427. 2 

245 404 258. b. n. l 428. k 

245. a. 1 and n. 2 418. b 258. &. n. 2 428. a 

245. a. 2 404. a 258. 6. n. 3 428. b 

246 405 258. b. n. 5 428. g 

246. r. 405. n. 2 258. 6. r. 428. i 

246. 6. n. 405. b. n. 2 258. c. 1 426. 3 

247 406 258. c. 2 427. 3 

247. a, c-e 407 and a, c-e 258. c. 2. r. 428. e 

247. a. r. 407. a. n. o 258. c. n. l 428. d and n. l 

247. b 406. a 258. d 427. a 
P. 253. Note 408 258. e 428. A: 

248 412 258. /. 1-3 429. 1-4 

248. n. 412. a 258. g 429. a 
248. r. 412. b and n. 259 424 
248. a 413 259. a 424. d 
248. a. n. 413. a 259. b 424. e 
248. a. r. 413. w. 259. c 424. c 
248. c. 1 409 259. d 424. f 
248. c. 2 409. a 259. e 424. ^ 
248. c. 2. r. 409. a. n. 259. g 428. j. n. 

249 410 259. h 428. j 



PARALLEL REFERENCES 487 

Old New Old New 



220 


271. c 


458 


430 


271. c. n. 


455. 2. a 


429. b 


272 


459 


221. 24 


272. r. 


561. a 


221. 23 


272. a. 1 


455 


221. 26 


272. a. 2 


455. a 


432 


272. 6 


581. N. 3 


432. b 


273 


460 


432. c 


273. c 


457. a 


432. d 


273. d 


461 


433 


273. e 


460. c 


434 


273.gr 


461. a 


435 


273. £ 


461. 6 


436 


274 


462 


437 


275 


463 


465 ff. 


P. 291. Note 


464 


437. a 


276 


465 


438 


276. a 


466 


439 


276. 6 


467 


450. (3) and h, 3 


276. c 


468 


440 


276. d 


469 


528. a 


276. e 


556 


439. b 


276. e. n. 


556. a 


439. b. n. 2 


276./ 


465. a 


439. b. n. l 


277 


470 


441 


277. r. 


471 


442 


277. a-gr 


471. Or-f 


442. a and n. l 


278 


472 


442. b 


279 


473 


444 


279. a 


474 


444. n. 


279. b 


473. a 


448 


279. c 


475 


450. a, 6 


279. d 


475. a 


450 


279. e 


476 


450. n. l 


279. r. 


476, n. 


450. n. 4 


280 


477 


450. n. 3 


281 


478 


448. a 


281. r. 


478. 


449. 1, 2 


282 


479 


449. a-c 


283 


480 


588 


284 


481 


521. n. 


285 


482 


451 


286 


483 


452 


286. n. 


483. ftn. 


452. a 


286. r., (a), (b) 


484, a-c 


454 


287 


485 


454. n. 


287. c. r. 


485. c. n. l 


453 


287. /-£ 


485. g-j 


456 


288. c and a 


486 and a 


457 


288. d, r. 


486. 6, d, e 


563. b. 1 


288. e 


486./ 


563. a 


288./ 


569. a 



488 



ALLEN AND GREENOUGH'S LATIN GRAMMAR 



Old 



New 



Old 



New 



P. 306, 


mid. 


487 




289 




488 




290 




489 




290. a 




490 




290. b 




491 




290. c 




492 




290. d 




493 




291 




494 




291. b 




495 




291. b. 


R. 


495. 


N. 


292 




496 




292. r. 




496. 


N. 1, 2 


292. n. 


1,2 


496. 


N. 3, 4 


292. a 




497 




292. b- 


e 


497. 


a-d 


292. b. 


N. 


411. 


a. n. 2 


293 




498 




293. b 




499 




293. c 




498. 


b 


294 




500 




294. a- 


d 


500. 


1-4 


295 




502 




295. it. 




502. 


N. 


296 




503 




296. r. 




503. 


N. 2 


297 




501, 


502 


298 




504 




298. n. 




504. 


N. 2 


298. r. 




504. 


a. n. i 


298. a 




504. 


c 


298. b 




504. 


N. 1 


298. c 




504. 


b 


299 




505. 


a 


299. a 




505 




300 




506 and n. i 


300. n. 




506. 


N. 2 


301 




507 




301. r. 




503. 


a. n. 2 


302. headn. 


508 




302 




509 




302. r. 




509. 


N. 1 


303 




510 




303. n. 


R. 


510. 


N. 1-3 


P. 320. 


Note 


511 




304 




512 




304. d 




513 




305 




514 




305. r. 




514. 


C. N. 


306 




515 




307 




516 




307. 6. 


R. C. R. 


516. 


6. N. c. 


308 




517 





308. b and r. 


517. b 


309 


518 


309. b 


518. c 


309. c 


518. b 


310 


521 


311 


522 


311. a 


445, 446 


311. a. n. l 


447. 2 


311. a. n. 2 


446 


311. a. n. 3 


447. a 


311. a. r. 


447. 3. n. 


311. b 


447. 1 


311. c 


522. a 


311. R. 


522. n. 1 


311. C. N. 


522. n. 2 


311. d 


523 


312 


524 


312. R., N. 


524. n. 2, 1 


313 


526, 527 


313. d 


549 


313. d. n. 


549. n. 3 


313. e 


527. d 


313./ 


527. d. n. 


313. f/ 


527. e 


313. h 


535. e 


313. i 


440 


314 


528 


314. b 


528. a 


315 


525 


315. a. 1 


525. a 


315. a. 2 


525. a. 3. n. 


315. d 


525. e 


316 


519 


316. a 


520 


317 


529, 530 


317. 2d par. 


531 


317. 3 


563 


317. a 


531. 1. n. 1 


317. b 


531. a 


317. b. n. l 


558. b 


317. 6. n. 2 


531. a. n. 


317. c 


532 


317. c. r. 


532. n. 


317. C. N. R. 


531. 2. n. 2 


318 


533 


P. 343. Note 


534 


319 


536, 537 


319. 3 


568 


319. 3. n. and r. 


537. 2. n. l, 2 


319. c 


558. 6 


319. d 


558, 559 


319. d. r. 


538 



PARALLEL REFERENCES 



489 



Old 



New 



Old 



New 



320 


535 


331. i. n. l 


565. n. 3 


320. /. n. 


535. /. n. 2 


331. i n. 3 


565. n. 2 


P. 348, mid. n. 


539 


P. 362, bottom, n. 567 


321 


540 


332 


568 


321. n. 3 


540. a 


332. a 


569 


1321. r. 


540. n. 3 


332. b 


571. a 


321. a-c 


540. b-d 


332. c 


462. a 


P. 349, bottom, n. 


541 


332. d 


571. b 


322 


542 


332. e 


568. n. 1 


322. r. 


535. a. n. 3 


332./ 


571. c 


323 


545, 546 


332.gr 


558 


324 


543 


332. g. r. 


558. a 


325 


545-548 


332. #. n. 2 


558. a. n. 2 


; 325. a 


545 


332. A 


580. d 


325. a. n. 


546. n. 4 


333 


572 


325. b 


546. a 


333. b. r. 


572. 6. n. 


, 325. c 


547 


334 


573-575 


; 326 and r. 


549 


334. c 


576 


326. a. r. 


549. a. n. 


334. c. r. 


576. n. 


327 


550, 551 


334. d, e 


575. c, d 


i 327. a 


551. c 


334./ 


676. a 


■ 327. b 


551. C. N. 2 


334.gr 


447. a, 6 


328 


552, 553 


P. 369. Note 


577 


328. 2 


554, 555 


335 


578 


328. 2. n. 1 


555. n. 2 


335. r. 


578. n. 


328. a 


556 


336. 1 


579 


328. a. n. 


556. or. n. 1 


336.2 


580 


328. r. 


556. a. n. 1 


336. 2. n. 2 


580. a 


328. r. 


556. a. n. 2 


336. 2. n. 3 


580. c 


329 


560, 561 


336. a. 1 


581 


\ 329. n. 


561. n. l 


336. a. r. 


581. n. 2 


329. r. 


561. n. 2 


336. a. 2 


582 


329. (classification) 562 


336. a. 2. n. 2 


582. a. n. 2 


330 


452 


336. b 


583 


f 330. b. 


459 


336. c 


583. b 


330. b. 2, 3 


563. a, 6 


336. c. n. 2 


583. c 


330. r. 


562. n. 


336. d 


583. a 


330. a, b 


582 


336. A 


584 


330. a. 2 


566. 6 


336. A. n. l 


584. a and n. 


330. b. 2 


566. c 


336. B 


585 


330. c 


582. a 


336. B. n. 2 


585. a 


330. d 


582. n. 


336. B. a 


585. b 


330. e 


579. ftn. 1 


837 


589 


330. / 


680. c 


338 


586 


331 and 6. n. 


563 and b 


338. a 


587 


331. e. 2 


558. b 


339 


688 


331./ 


564 


339. r. 


588. a 


331. /. ftn. 


564. n. 


P. 378, mid. 


590 


331./. r. 


565, a, 569. 2. n. 2 


340 


691 


331. flr 


563. n. 


341 


592 


331. h 


566 


341. b-d 


592. 1-3 


331. i 


665 


341. r. 


592. n. 






490 



ALLEN AND GREENOUGH'S LATIN GRAMMAR 



Old 



New 



Old 



New 



342 


593 


360 


613 


342. ftn. 2d par. 


593. n. 2 


360. r. 


613. n. 


P. 381 ff. 


594 


361 


614 


P. 386, top. Note 


595 


362 


615 


343 


596 and a 


362. a 


615. a, 6 


344 


597 


362. a. n. 


615. n. 


344. r. 


597. a. n. 2 


362. 6 and r. 


615. c and 


P. 389, top. r. 


597. b 


362. c 


615. d 


P. 389, top. a 


598. a 


363 


616 


345 


599 


364 


617 


345. a 


599. d 


365 


618 


345. d 


599. a 


366 


619 


P. 392. Note 


600 


367 


620 


346 


601 


367.6 


620. c 


P. 394. Note 


602 


P. 414, mid. 


Note 621 


347 


603 


368 


622 


347. d 


603./ 


369 


623 


347. d. n. l, 2 


603. /. n. 2, 3 


370 


624 


347. d. r. 


603. /. n. 4 


371 


625 


347. e. r. 


603. /. n. l 


372 


626 


348 


604 


373 


627 


348. 1-10 


604. a-j 


374 


628 


348. 9. Exc. 


604. i. 1-6 


375 


629 


349-351 





375. 6, c, e 


629. 6. 1-3 


351. 6 


605 


375. d 


629. c 


352, 353 





375. e 


629. b. 3 


354 


606 


375./ 





354. d 


606. c. n. 


375.gr 


629. d 


P. 402. Note 


607 


375. g. 3-5 


629. d. 1-8 


355. r. 


608. jr. 


375. h 


629. e 


356 


609 


P. 425. Note 


630 


356. e 


609. n. 


376 


631 


356./ 


609. e 


377 


632 


357 


610 


378 


633 


357.6 





379 


634 


357. c 


610.6 


380 


635 


358 


611 


381 


636 


359 


612 


382 


637 


359. 6, c 


612. d, e 


383 


638 


359. 6. r. 


612. d. n. 


384 


. 


359. c. r. 


612. e. n. 


P. 429 


639 


359. d and r, 


612. /. n. l, 2 


385 


640 


359. e 


612.gr 


386 


641 


359. /, g 


612. 6, c 


887 


642 



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